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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 






A HISTORY OF PERU 



11 a 1 1 n ' :H m c r ic a n ii\ ep ut) I ir s 



A HISTORY OF PERU 



BY CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM 

Author ok "Cuzco and Lima,'' "Peru and India," "War Betwken 
Chile and Peru," Etc. 



h J - 



CHICAGO 

CHARLES H. SERGEL AND COMPANY 

MDCCCXCII 



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Copyright, 1892. By 
Charles H. Sergel & Company. 






"^ y Press of Charles H. Sergel & Comapany 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I— Inca Civilization 

Geographical features of the country — Antiquity of the race — 
The ruins at Tiahuanaco — Sacsahuaman — Ollantay-tambo — 
Concacha, Quecap — The Deity of the ancient people — Disinte- 
gration of the Megalithic Empire — Origin of the Incas — Suc- 
cession of Incas — Religion of the Incas — Priesthood — Religious 
festivals — Language and literature — Drama of Ollanta — Archi- 
tecture — Metallurgy — Pottery — Social condition of the people- 
System of Colonies. ........ ii 

CHAPTER II— Inca Empire 

The army — Military roads — Conquest of the Collao — War with 
the Chancas — Civilization of the coast people — Inca conquest of 
the coast — Conquest of Quito — Reign of Huayna Capac — Loves 
of Quilaco and Ccuri-coyllur — War between Huascar and 
Atahualpa — Inca conquests — Description of the people. . 40 

CHAPTER III— Conquest of Peru 

The Spanish people — Francisco Pizarro — Voyage of Andagoya — 
Partnership of Pizarro, Almagro and Luque — First unsuccess- 
ful voyage — Second voyage — Forlorn hope on the Isle of 
Gallo — Discovery of Peru — Pizarro in Spain — Grant of the 
Concession — The brothers of Pizarro — Commencement of 
the invasion — Caxamarca — Capture of Atahualpa — Death of 
Huascar — The ransom — Death of Atahualpa — Protest of Her- 
nando De Soto and others — Victory of Titu Atouchi — Retri- 
bution — Battle of Vilcacunca— Recognition of Manco Inca — 
The Spaniards in Cuzco — Arrival of Alvarado — Foundation o£ 
Lima — Expedition of Almagro to Chile — Grants to Pizarro 
and Almagro — Siege of Cuzco by Manco — Siege of Lima — 
Help from Mexico — Death of Manco. ..... 65 



viii CONTENTS 



CHx\PTER IV — PizARRO AND Almagro 

Dispute between the partners — Seizure of -Cuzco by Almagi 
Battle of Abancay — Negotiations — Interview at Mala — Battle 
of Salinas — Execution of old Almagro — Foundation of cities — 
Murder of Pizarro — Character of Pizarro — Proceedings of the 
assassins — Arrival of Vaca dt; Castro — Battle of Chupas — Death 
of Almagro "the lad"— Conduct of Gonzalo Pizarro. . . 79 

CHAPTER V — Reception of the "new laws" 

Las Casas and the "New Laws" — Blasco- Nunez Vela, the first 
viceroy — Promulgation of the "New Laws" — Rebellion of Gon- 
zalo Pizarro — Francisco Carbajal — Arrest of the viceroy — 
Carbajal in Lima — Usurpation of Gonzalo Pizarro — Escape of 
the viceroy — Battle of Anaquito — Carbajal hunting Centeno — 
Government of Gonzalo Pizarro — Appointment of Gasca — Cun- 
ning proceedings of Gasca — Battle of Huarina — Sacsahuana — 
Execution of Gonzalo Pizarro and Carbajal — Cruelty of Gasca 
— Departure of Gasca — Mendoza, the good viceroy — Discon- 
tent of the conquerors — Rebellion of Giron — Warlike proceed- 
ings of the judges — Battle of Chuquinga — Siege ,of Pucara — 
Execution of Giron. . . . . . . . .119 

CHAPTER VI — Settlement of the country 

Plan of the Marquis of Canete — Treatment of turbulent char- 
acters — Viceregal Court — Exploring enterprises — Chile — The 
Inca Sayri Tupac — Viceroy Count of Nieva — Governor 
Lope de Castro — Viceroy Francisco de Toledo — Capture and 
death of Tupac Amaru — Persecution of the Incas — Legisla- 
tion of Toledo — "Yanaconas" — Viceroy Don Martin Enri- 
quez — Viceroy Count of Villar Don Pardo — Viceroy Don 
Garcia, Marquis of Canete — English pirates in the Pacific — 
Taxation — Viceroy Marquis of Salinas — Rule of Philip TI — 
Animals and plants brought from Europe — Negro slaves on the 
coast. ........ . . 141 

CHAPTER VII— The viceroys 

The Council of the Indies — Viceroys of Peru — Archbishops of 
Lima — St. Toribio — Santa Rosa — Bishoprics — Religious orders 
— Jesuits — University of San Marcos — Colleges — The Inquisi- 
tion — Marquis of Montes Claros — The Prince of Esquilache — 
The Nun Ensign — Marquis of Guadalcazar — Dutch predatory 



CONTENTS ix 

voyage — Count of Chinchon — Discovery of Peruvian bark — In- 
surrection of the Urus — Navigation of the Amazon — Marquis 
of Mancerra — Count of Salvatiarra — Count of Alba de Liste — 
Introduction of scientific studies — Count of Santistevan — Cruel 
treatment of the Indians — Outcry of Padilla — Count of Lemos — 
Disturbances at the mines— Count of Castellar — Jealousy of the 
monopoly — Duke of La Palata — Count of Monclova — Treaty 
of Utrecht — Relaxation of the monopoly — Marquis of Casteli 
dos Rios— -Prince of Santo Bono — Renewal of the stringent 
monopoly — Marquis of Castelfuerte — Execution of Antequera 
— Castelfuerte and the Inquisition — Marquis of Villa Garcia — 
Dr. Pedro Peralta y Barnuero — Count of Superunda — Colonial 
nobility — Great earthquake at Lima — Don Manuel Amat — Re- 
building of Lima and Callao — Don Manuel de Guirior — Botan- 
ical expedition of Ruiz and Paron — Viceroy Jauregui — Mis- 
sion of Areche — Separation of New Granada and Buenos 
Ayres. ........... i66 

CHAPTER VIII— Rebellion of tupac amaru 

Failure of Toledo's legislation — Dreadful treatment of the In- 
dians—Treatment of those who protested— Jose Gabriel Con- 
dorcanqui — His home, his education, character, personal ap- 
pearance — Claims — Took the name of Tupac Amaru — His in- 
dignation at the treatment of the people — Rebellion — Execu- 
tion of Aliaga — March to Quiquijana — Destruction of Obrajes 
— Battle of Sangarara — Progress of the Inca to Azangaro — His 
letters to authorities at Cuzco — Battle outside Cuzco — Arrival 
of Areche and General del Valle — Letter of the Inca to Areche 
— Defeat of the Indians — Capture of the Inca and his family — 
Barbarous sentence of Areche — Dreadful executions — Estimate 
of the Inca's career — Diego Tupac Amaru — Siege of Puno — 
End of the career of Areche — Inca headquarters at Azangaro — 
Andres Mandigurri and Vilcapasa — Submission of the Incas — 
Treacherous arrests and executions — Extirpation of the Inca's 
family — Fate of Fernando Tupac Amaru — Final success of the 
cause. ........... 192 

CHAPTER IX — Eve of the revolution 

Recommendation of the Viceroy Jauregui — Viceroy Teodoro de 
Croix — New political divisions — Viceroy Gil de Taboada — The 
"Mercuria Peruano" — Exploration and surveys — The census 



X CONTENTS 

of 1794 — Career of O'Higgins — Viceroy Marquis of Aviles — 
Viceroy Abascal — The liberal bishop, Chavez de la Rosa — The 
liberal rector of San Carlos — Friends of liberty in the Univer- 
sity — Influence of ladies of Lima — Execution of two visionaries 
— Liberalism of Unanue andPezet — Secret meetings — Conspira- 
cies of Riva Aguero — The Count of Vista Florida — Insurrections 
— Suppression of a newspaper — Abolition of the Inquisition — ■ 
Buenos Ayres and Chile declare independence— Campaign of 
Goyeneche in Upper Peru — Insurrection of Pumacagua — Battle 
of Umachiri — Death of Pumacagua — Pezuela in Upper Peru — 
Cruel vengeance on the Indians — Voyage of Captain Brown — 
Conspiracy of Quiros — Pardo de Zela — Retirement of Abascal 
— Viceroy Pezuela. , . . . . . . .215 

CHAPTER X — The war of independence under san martin 

Report of Pezuela — Birth and early history of San Martin — Prep- 
arations to cross the Andes — Passage of the Andes — Emanci- 
pation of Chile — Purchase of ships for the expedition to Peru — 
Lord Cochrane and his fleet — First cruise of Lord Cochrane — 
Second cruise of Lord Cochrane— Fight at Pisco — Expedition- 
ary force of San Martin — Intrigues and conspiracies at Lima — 
Liberal aspirations of the students — Correspondence of Lima 
patriots with San Martin — Embarkation and landing of San 
Martin — Headquarters of Huaura — Cutting out of the ' 'Esmer- 
alda" — Expedition of Miller to Tacna — San Martin joined by 
students from Lima — March of Arenales — Deposition of Pez- 
uela — La Serna, viceroy — Numerous officers go over to San 
Martin — Abortive negotiations — Evacuation of Lima by La 
Serna — Entry of San Martin into Lima — Proclamation of the 
Independence of Peru — Administrative measures of San Martin 
— Conduct of Lord Cochrane, and the treasure — Guise founds 
a Peruvian navy — Fate of the ships under Lord Cochrane — 
Notice of General Miller — Useless march of Canterac — Sur- 
render of Callao Castle — Defeat of Tristan at Macacona — Vic- 
tory of Pinchincha — Interview between San Martin and Bolivar 
— The Minister Monteagudo — Resignation of San Martin — Re- 
tirement and death of San Martin. . . . . . 237 

CHAPTER XI — Riva aguero, first president of peru, and 

THE first congress CAREER OF BOLIVAR 

Luna Pizarro, President of Congress — The "Junta de Gobierno" 



CONTENTS xi 

— Organization of the troops — Expedition of Alvarado to the 
south — Battle of Torata — Miller on Peruvian soldiers — Failure 
of Alvarado — Riva Aguero elected President — Activity of Riva 
Aguero — Expedition of Santa Cruz — Battle of Zepita — Retreat 
of Santa Cruz — Canterac retakes Lima — Intrigues of Bolivar 
and Sucre— Evacuation of Lima by Canterac— Deposition of 
Riva Aguero — Career and death of Riva Aguero — Arrival of 
Bolivar — Birth and career of Bolivar. ... - 257 

CHAPTER XII — War of independence under bolivar 

Mutiny at Callao Castle — Callao Castle handed over to the Span- 
iards — Flight of the Marquis of Torre Tagle — Fate of De Pezet 
— Battle of Junin — Concentration of Spanish forces — Maneu- 
vering of the two armies — Battle of Ayacucho — End of Span- 
ish power — Bolivar and the life Presidentship — Triumphal 
journey of Bolivar — New Republic of Bolivia — Naval proceed- 
ings of Guise — Surrender of Callao Castle — Departure of Boli- 
var from Peru — General Lamar elected President — Pressure 
on Bolivia — -Treaty of Piquiza — Resignation of Sucre — War 
with Colombia — Battle of Portete de Tarqui — Deposition of La- 
mar — La Fuente rises at Lima. . . . . . .271 

CHAPTER XIII — History of the republic — presidents 

GAMARRA AND ORBEGOSO 

Difficulties of the Peruvians — Unfair criticisms of the South Amer- 
icans — Boundaries of Peru — Political Divisions — Notice of Gen- 
eral Gamarra — Organization of the government — Disturbances 
at Cuzco — ^Vice President La Fuente deposed — Arbitrary con- 
duct of Gamarra — Opposition — Great speech of Vigil — The 
Constituent Convention — Orbegoso elected President — Seditious 
conduct of Bermudez and Gamarra — Gallantry of a sentry — 
Battle of Huaylacucho — "Embrace of Maquinhuayo" — Consti- 
tution of 1834 — Archbishops of Lima — Peruvian Bishops — 
Banishment of Gamarra and La Fuente — Gallant capture of Cal- 
lao Castle, by Salaverry — Sudden seizure of power by Salaverry . 290 

CHAPTER XIV — History of the republic — the career of 

SALAVERRY 

Birth and education of Salaverry — Salaverry joins the camp of San 
Martin — Served at Torata, Zepita, Junin, Ayacucho — On the 
guilt of civil dissensions — Imprisoned by Gamarra — Adventures 



xii CONTENTS 

— Battle with Vidal — Made prisoner when in disguise — Turn 
of fortune's wheel — Supreme chief — Personal appearance — Ex- 
ecution of Valle Riestra — March to the north — Salaverry's 
fleet — Intrigue of Santa Cruz with Gamarra — Treaty of Santa 
Cruz with Orbegoso — Battle of Yanacocha — Salaverry organ- 
izes an army — Gamarra pardoned by Salaverry — Marches of 
Salaverry — Salaverry at Arequipa — Anarchy at Lima — Arrival 
of Orbegoso — Santa Cruz enters Arequipa — Fight at Arequipa 
bridge — The Campena of Arequipa — Fighting at Uchumayu — 
Battle of Socabaya — Fugitives captured by General Miller — 
Execution of Salaverry and his officers — Lessons from the ca- 
reer of Salaverry. 304 

CHAPTER XV — History of the republic — the peru-bolivian 

CONFEDERATION, AND THE "RESTORATION" UNDER GAMARRA 

Notice of General Santa Cruz — Plan of Santa Cruz for a Confed- 
eration — Protector of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation — Admin- 
istration of Santa Cruz — Hostility of the Chilean government — 
State of parties in Chile — Civil dissensions in Chile — No justifi- 
cation for war — Treacherous seizure of Peruvian ships — War 
declared — Defeat of Blanco Encalada — Peruvian exiles join the 
Chilean expedition — Chileans and exiles iland at Ancon — Bat- 
tle of La Guia — Battle of Yungay — Flight of Santa Cruz — Ac- 
count of the career of General Miller — Failure of the Confed- 
eration — Gamarra declared President — Congress of Huancayo 
— Constitution of 1839 — Rebellion of Vivanco — War with Bo- 
livia — Battle of Yngavi — Death and character of Gamarra — 
Peace with Bolivia — Don Manuel Menendez, acting President 
— Power seized by Torrico — Battle of Agua Santa — Vidal, head 
of the State — Vivanco declared Supreme Director of Peru — 
Failure in the first twenty years. , , , , . 322 

CHAPTER XVI — History of the republic — president ramon 

CASTILLA 

Tarapaca, the birth place -of Castilla — Birth and parentage of 
Castilla — Castilla's early life and military career — His appear- 
ance and character — His reception at Arica — Formation of a 
Constitutional Party — General Guarda out-witted — Battle of 
Carmen Alto — Flight of Vivanco — Restoration of Vice Presi- 
dent Menendez — Castilla elected President of Peru — Peace es- 
tablished by Castilla — Steamers in the Pacific — Peruvian navy 



CONTENTS xiii 

Tinder Castilla — Guano — Its effect on the finances — Nitrate of 
Tarapaca — Payment of interest of the debt — General Echeni- 
que elected President — Notice of Echenique — Manipulation of 
the Internal Debt — Protest of Don Domingo Elias — Castilla 
joins the Rebellion — Battle of Alto del Conde — Moron defeated 
and shot at Arequipa — March of Castilla — Abolishes slavery — 
Puts an end to tribute from Indians — Battle of LaPalma — Cas- 
tilla elected President — Constitution of 1856, revised i860 — Re- 
volt of Arequipa — Mutiny of Montero — Vivanco's attack on Cal- 
lao — Storming of Arequipa — Flightof Vivanco — Difference with 
Ecuador — Notice of General Pezet — Finance and administra- 
tion of Castilla — Lima Penitentiary — San Roman elected Pres- 
ident — Notice of General San Roman — Pezet becomes Presi- 
dent on death of San Roman — The Talambo affair — Difference 
with Spain — Pezet makes a treaty with Spain — Deposition of 
Pezet — Colonel Prado — Supreme Chief — War with Spain — Pe- 
ruvian navy at Abtao— Spanish fleet — Defences at Callao — At- 
tack on Callao by the Spanish fleet — Death of Castilla — Depo- 
sition of Prado — Colonel Balta elected President. . . 338 

CHAPTER XVII — History of the republic — presidents balta 

AND PARDO PERUVIAN PUBLIC WORKS CHILEAN PRETEXTS FOR WAR 

A new generation — Enormous increase of the foreign debt — Pub- 
lic works — Railways on the coast — Lines across the Andes -— 
Oroya railway — Line from the coast to Puno — System of rail- 
ways when complete — Harbor works at Callao— Piers at Pisco 
and Eten — Navigation of Amazonian tributaries — Embellish- 
ment of Lima — National Exhibition — Murder of President Bal- 
ta — Don Manuel Pardo, President — Notice of Don Manuel Par- 
do — Stoppage of payment of interest of the debt — Defensive 
Treaty with Bolivia — Chinese immigration — Treaty with China 
— Census of 1876 — Statistical Department — Fine Arts society — 
Navy — "Huascar" and "Independencia" — Naval Schools — Re- 
ductions in the army — Sedition of Pierola — Colonel Prado elect- 
ed President — Assassination of Don Manuel Pardo — The 
'Shah" and "Huascar" — Approach of the war — State of Chil- 
ean parties — Atacama and Tarapaca coveted by Chile — Prepa- 
rations — Ironclads "Cochran" and "Blanco" — Question of the 
Bolivian boundary — Encroachments on Bolivia — Declaration 
of war with Bolivia — Good offices offered by Peru — False pre- 
texts for war with Peru — Declaration of war with Peru — Ex- 
ports in 1878 — Income. 366 



xiv CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XVIII — The Chilean invasion — glorious fight of 

THE "HUASCAR" CAMPAIGNS OF TACNA AND TARAPACA 

Possession of the sea — Notice of Admiral Miguel Grau — Pro- 
ceedings of the "Huascar" — Chilean fleet prepared to attack 
the "Huascar" — Fight of the "Huascar" with the Chilean fleet 
— Death of Admiral Grau — Slaughter on board the "Huascar" 
— Glorious character of the "Huascar's defence — Conduct of 
Chilean officials — Difficulty of defending the coast line — Defen- 
sive preparation in Tarapaca — Landing of Chilean army at Pi- 
sagua — Battle of San Francisco — Peruvian victory at Tarapaca 
— Desertion of President Prado — Pierola seizes the government 
— Notice of Don Nicolas de Pierola — Blockade of Arica — The 
"Angamos" and her single gun — Defences of Arica — Gallant 
running of the blockade by the "Union" — Blockade of Callao — 
Incidents — Sinking of a Chilean torpedo boat by Lieut. Galvez 
— Bombardment of defenceless towns — No justification of fur- 
ther bloodshed — Landing of a Chilean army at Ylo — Fight at 
Torata — Battle of Tacna — Assault of Arica — Massacre of Peru- 
vian officers — Marauding raid along the Peruvian cost — Futile 
attempt to negotiate terms of peace. ..... 387 

CHAPTER XIX — The Chilean invasion — fall of lima — contin- 
ued RESISTANCE BY CACERES- -PEACE MADE BY CHILE WITH GENER- 
AL IGLESIAS — FALL OF THE CHILEAN NOMINEE — CACERES ELECTED 
PRESIDENT 

Lima threatened — Defensive preparation — Chilean army lands 
at Curayco — Battle of Chorrillos — Death of Vivanco, Valle 
Riestra, Castilla — Battle of Miraflores — Burning of the ships 
at Callao — Fall of Lima — Barbarous conduct of the Chileans — 
Dr. Garcia Calderon made President — Government of Garcia 
Calderon upset by Chileans — Admiral Montero, Vice President, 
in charge — Seat of government and congress at Arequipa — 
Chilean raids — Successes of Caceres in the Xauxa valley — De- 
fection of Iglesias — Battle of Huamachuco — Negotiations be- 
tween Chileans and Iglesias — Treaty of peace at Ancon — Evac- 
uation of Lima by the Chileans — Reflections on the results 01 
the war — Ceremony in honor of the fallen heroes — Caceres in 
arms against Iglesias— Masterly strategy of Caceres — Fall of 
Iglesias — General Caceres elected President of Peru. . . 411 



CONTENTS XV 

CHAPTER XX— Regeneration 

Notice of General Caceres — Notice of Dr. Solar, Minister of Cac- 
eres — Policy of Caceres — Reduction of the array — Restoration 
of the national library — Restoration of the university — Renova- 
tion of the exhibition gardens — Receipts and expenditures — 
Proposals of Mr. Grace — Chilean obstruction — Approval of the 
Grace Contract — Terms of the Grace Contract — The Peruvian 
Corporation — Resignation of General Caceres — Colonel Mora- 
les Bermudez elected President. Notice of Colonel Morales- 
Bermudez — Notice of Vice-President Borgono — Retrospect. 429 

CHAPTER XXI— The People of Peru 

Population at different periods — Upper class of Spanish descent — 
Influence of climate — Enthusiasm of Peruvian youth — Charac- 
ter of Lineilos — Ladies of Lima — Churches and religious cere- 
monies — Archbishops of .Lima — Monastic orders — Colleges — 
Public amusements — Life on estates in the country — Emanci- 
pation of slaves — Chinese labor — Life in summer on the "Lo- 
mas" — Peruvians of Spanish descent in the 'Sierra" — Difficult- 
ies of traveling — Society of Ayacucho and Cuzco — Inca Indians. 
Eminent men among them — Physical and mental characteris- 
tics of the Indians — Their needs and requirements — Agricultural 
and pastoral skill of the Indians — Dwellings and dress of the 
Indians — Melancholy songs — Aptitude for art — Alcaldes — In- 
terest attached to the Indians — Different tribes — Tenacity of 
the Indians — Local government — Priests — Bishops in Peru. 
Want of supervision. — State of education — Requirements for 
improvement — Political divisions of Peru — Population of Lima. 443 

CHAPTER XXII— Literature of Peru 

Authors in the time of the Viceroys — Viceregal Poets — Poets be- 
fore the independence — Emancipation of thought — Poets: Ol- 
medo, Felipe Pardo, Manuel Sequra, Arnaldo Marquez, Cle- 
mente Althaus, Corpancho, "Juan de Arona," Salaverry, Cis- 
neros, Fernandez, Carrasco, Ricardo Palma — Raima's protest 
against Chilean Vandalism — Historians: — Ricardo Palma, Se- 
bastin Lorente, General Mendiburu, Dr. Virgil— Mariano Fe- 
lipe Paz Soldan — His public services. His geographical w^orks 
• — Historical writers: Polo, Saldomando — Topographers: 
Modesto Basadre, Manuel A, Fuentes, Jose G. Clavero, Val- 



xvi CONTENTS 

divia — Meso — Legal writers: Pacheco,Santistevan, Mariategui, 
— Fuentes — Garcia Caldeon — Masias — Antiquaries and Philolo- 
gists: Rivero, Barranca, Nodal, Zegarra.Villar, Mujica — Jour- 
nalism — Ateneo de Lima — Geographical Society of Lima — 
Works of Dr. Carronza — Retrospect. ..... 465 

CHAPTER XXIII— Wealth of Peru 

Singular advantages of Peru — Guano — Petroleum — Cotton — Sugar 
— Vines — Olives — Fruits and vegetables— Extension of irrigation 
on the coast — Silver mines — Coal mines — Gold washings — Al- 
paca wool — Chinchilla skins — Potatoes — Chufius — Ocas and 
other edible roots — Quinua — Corn crops — Cuzco maize — Coffee 
and Cocao — Coaca cultivation — Chinchona bark — India rubber 
— The Peruvian Montanas — Navigable communication with 
the Atlantic — Exploration of Peruvian rivers— Roads and 
steamers needed — Peace and immigration essential. . . 485 

APPENDIX A— Trade of Peru 

Exports. Fourth quarter of 1890 — Annual Exports — Imports and 
exports, showing trade with different countries. Fourth quar- 
ter of 1890 — Cerro de Pasco silver mines working — Gold wash- 
ings of Sandia — Mining claims registered January 9th, 1891. 507 

APPENDIX B — Financial Statement. 



APPENDIX C — Constitution of Peru 

APPENDIX D — Authorities for the History of Peru 

APPENDIX E— Manufactures 

INDEX 



514 
515 
534 
540 
543 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page. 
Bridge over the Rimac at Lima, . . Frontispiece. 

Monolithic Doorway at Tiahuanaco, . . . 15 

North View of the Remains of the Incas' Fort, Sacshuaman, 19 

Ruins of the Palace of Inca Manco Capac, at Cuzco, . 21 

Ancient Peruvian Pottery, ... .34 

Portraits of Three Incas, , . . -43 

Francisco Pizarro, (from Prescott's " Peru,") . . 67 

Obsequies of Atahaulpa (from a painting by the Peruvian artist, 

Monteros), . . . . . . -83 

Church of Santa Domingo, Cuzco, .... 87 

Church of the Jesuits, Cuzco, ..... 149 

Church of San Francisco, Lima, .... 169 

Costumes of Peru in 1820, ..... 223 

Jose de San Martin, . ..... 237 

Statue of Bolivar, Lima, ..... 271 

Lima from the Alameda, . . . . . 295 

Don Ramon Castilla, ...... 338 

Mole and Harbor, Callao, ..... 369 

The Exposition Palace, Lima, ..... 374 

The Pantheon, Lima, , . . . . 416 

General Don Andres A. Caceres, .... 429 

General View of Lima, ..... 445 

A Street Scene in Lima, on a Holiday, .... 450 

Types of the Native Races, ..... 458 

Francisco de Paula G. Vigil, ..... 475 

Entrance to the Botanical Garden, Lima, . • . 498 

xvi 







MAPS 



General Map of Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, . . ii 

Battle of Tacna, . . ... , 402 

Map of Country Surrounding Lima, , . . 422 

Map Showing location of Petroleum Wells . . 488 

]Map Showing Railroads, ..... 492 



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A HISTORY OF PERU 



CHAPTER 1 

INCA CIVILIZATION 

Peru is a country which must always hold a promi- 
nent position in the history of the American continent. 
It was here that the civilization of the red race attained 
its highest development. It was in Peru that the most 
romantic episodes in the story of Spanish conquest 
were enacted; and the Peruvian capital was the centre 
of colonial power. Here too the colossal fabric of 
Spanish colonial dominion was finally shattered and, 
in this classic land of the Incas, an emancipated peo- 
ple have, during more than half a century, been pain- 
fully but hopefuUv struggling, in the face of many 
difficulties, to establish a national existence based on 
well ordered liberty. 

A narrative of the complete history of Peru, embrac- 
ing so many points of special interest, can not fail to 
be alike attractive and full of instruction. It is, how- 
ever, more necessary to keep the physical features of 
the region in mind, while studj'ing Peruvian history, 
than is perhaps the case in any other land. For here 
the course of events is influenced, in a special degree, 



12 A HISTORY OF PERU 

by the geography of the country. It would be difficult 
to exaggerate this influence in considering the history 
of any part of the world, but in Peru it is especially 
obvious and striking. Upon its physical conforma- 
tion has depended its civilization and the fate of gen- 
erations of its people in peace and war. 

The mountainous region of the Peruvian Andes ex- 
tends from the equator southward for a thousand miles, 
and averages a width of two hundred and fifty miles. 
Its loftiest peaks are over 20,000 feet in height. The 
mountain system consists of three chains or cor-dilleras — 
maritime, central, and eastern. The narrow belt between 
the maritime and central chains is, for the most part, a 
cold and lofty region called puna. Between the central 
and eastern cordilleras there is much greater width, and 
the region consists of gigantic mountain spurs, wide 
plains, rich valleys, and deep gorges. The eastern Andes 
is a magnificent and almost continuous range of moun- 
tains, cut through by six rivers, the Maranon and Hual- 
laga in northern Peru, and the Mantaro, Apurimac, Vil- 
camayu, and Paucartambo, the four latter being tribu- 
taries of the great x\mazonian affluent — the Ucayali. 
This region between the central and eastern chains, 
called the sierra^ was the seat of Inca civilization. The 
beauty and grandeur of its scenery is unsurpassed in 
any other part of the world. The central cordillera 
is not cut through by any river, although the upper 
courses of some of the streams flowing to the Pacific 
are to the eastward of the line of its highest peaks. 
It forms an unbroken water parting. It consists mainly 
of crystalline and volcanic rocks, the western or mari- 
time cordillera being of the same formation, and the 
two chains being merely separated by erosion. The 
most northern section of the Peruvian Andes is com- 



INC A CIVILIZATION 13 

prised in the watersheds of the Maranon and Huallaga, 
and is about three hundred and fifty miles long. There 
the river Maranon rises in the lake of Lauricocha, on 
the inner slope of the central cordillera, and after a 
northernly course of several hundred miles, forces its 
way through the eastern chain, forming a gorge known 
as the Pongo de Mauseriche, and enters the Amazo- 
nian plain. The Huallaga, rising within a few miles 
of the source of the Maranon, flows northward in a 
valley further east, and finds a way through the eastern 
Cordilleras in a gorge called the Pongo de Chasuta. 
But the most remarkable geographical feature in this 
northern section of the Peruvian Andes is the lateral 
valley of the river Santa, called the Callejon de Huay- 
las, between the central and maritime chains. Here 
the central cordillera attains heights of 18,000 and 
20,000 feet, and the passes are 15,000 feet above the 
sea. The river Santa rises in the Alpine lake of 
Conococha and flows northward for a hundred miles 
along the fissure between the two chains. At Huaylas, 
where the river turns westward, and forces its way 
through a gorge in the western chain to reach the 
coast, the height is 9,000 feet. 

At the southern limit of this northern section of the 
Peruvian Andes, the central and eastern cordilleras are 
connected by a saddle on which are the famous silver 
mines of Cerro Pasco. At the southern base of this 
saddle is the lake of Chinchay-cocha, thirty-seven miles 
long by seven, and 13,000 feet above the sea. Its 
marshy banks are overgrown with reeds, and inhab- 
ited by numerous water fowls. Fom this lake a river 
flows southward through the populous vaJie}^ of Xauxa^ 
for one hundred and fifty miles, when it breaks through 



t4 A HISTORY OF PERU 

the eastern range and becomes the Mantaro, a naviga- 
ble affluent of the Uca3^ali. 

From Xauxa to the saddle of Vilcanota, the Cuzco 
section of the Peruvian Andes forms the centre and 
heart of Peru. Here there is every variet}^ of climate 
and scener3^ Tropical vegetation in the deep gorges, 
the climate and products of Ital}^ and Spain in the 
warm valle3^s, the crops of northern Europe in the more 
elevated plains and ravines, higher up are alpine pas- 
ture lands, above which there are bleak wilds with a 
sub-Arctic climate, crowned by rocky cliffs and peaks 
covered with everlasting snow. Most beautiful is the 
valley of the river Vilcama3^u, near which is the plateau, 
surrounded by hills, on which stands the famous city 
of Cuzco 11,380 feet above the sea. 

The inland basin of Lake Titicaca forms the most 
southern section of the region of the Peruvian Andes. 
This plateau is of great height, the lowest part being 
the level of the lake itself, which is 12,545 feet above 
the sea. Bounded by the knot of Vilcanota, connecting 
the central and eastern cofdilleras, on the north, and 
by those ranges to east and west, it extends far away 
to the south, where the river Desaguadero, draining 
the lake, has a course one hundred and fift}' miles 
long before it disappears in the salt swamps of Paria. 
The Titicaca basin is over three hundred miles long 
by one hundred wide, and the northern part is known 
as the Collao. The lake itself is eighty miles long by 
forty broad, divided into two unequal parts by the 
peninsula of Copacabana. The southern division, 
called the lake of Huaqui, twenty-four miles long by 
twenty-one broad, is united to the greater lake by the 
narrow strait of Tiquina. The principal islands are 
those of Titicaca and Coati near the Copacabana penin- 



INC A , CI VI LIZA TION 1 5 

sula. The basin of Titicaca is at too great an eleva- 
tion for corn to ripen. It is a country of pastures and 
potato crops, while the onl}' trees are the quefiuar ( Bitd- 
dleia Incana) with its dark leaf and rough bark, and 
the molle {^Sclmius Molle). Around this cold and cheer- 
less plateau the cordilieras attain their greatest height. 
The lofty peaks of lUimani and lUampu rise on the 
eastern side of the plateau to elevations exceeding 
20,000 feet, while the volcano of Sajama on the coast 
range is said to be even higher. 

On one side of the lofty region of the Peruvian Andes 
is the narrow strip of coast bordering the Pacific Ocean, 
and on the other are the vast tropical forests of the 
Amazonian valley. 

The strip of land between the Andes and the Pacific 
averages a width of twenty miles. The absence of rain 
on this coast is caused by the action of the lofty moun- 
tains on the trade wind. This wind, after coming from 
the Atlantic heavily laden with vapors, and pouring rain 
over the Amazonian valley, reaches the snow capped 
Andes. Here the last particle of moisture is wrung 
from it by the very low temperature, and it rushes 
down to the Pacific coast a cool and dry wind, reaching 
the ocean before it again becomes charged with mois- 
ture. Hence from November to April there is constant 
dryness on the coast ; while from June to September 
the sky is obscured by fog, often accompanied by driz- 
zling rain called garua. When it is hottest and driest 
on the coast, it is raining heavily in the Andes, and 
the rivers are full ; while when the rivers are lowest 
the garua prevails. The coast may be described as a 
long strip of desert crossed at intervals by rivers flow- 
ing from the Andes to the sea. The largest deserts 
are seventy miles across, but they vary much in extent. 



i6 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Steep cliffs generally rise from the sea, above which is 
the tablazo or plateau apparently quite bare of vegeta- 
tion. The desert surface is generally hard, but, in many 
places, there are accumulations of drift sea sand formed 
in half moon shaped hillocks, which continually shift, 
any stone or dead beast forming a nucleus round which 
the sand accumulates. When the mists set in the 
low hills near the coast, called lomas, are covered with 
a blooming vegetation of wild flowers for a short time. 
The rivers flow through fertile valle3^s and are separ- 
ated from each other by the deserts. The whole coast 
is subject to frequent and severe earthquakes, the line 
of disturbance being usually meridional or along the 
coast. 

On the eastern side of the Peruvian Andes are the 
tropical forests within the Amazonian basin traversed 
b}^ great navigable rivers, including the wooded slopes 
and ravines of the eastern watershed of the Andes. 
This region is called the moiitafia. It is important 
from the value of its products, and interesting from 
the magnificence of its scener}^ 

Thus we find that the countr}^, the histor}^ of which 
we are about to study, is divided into three distinct 
regions, all running through its entire length. The 
mountainous region of the Peruvian Andes, enjoying 
temperate climate, ye.t exacting from its inhabitants 
the necessity for sustained exertion of mind and body, 
was the natural seat of power and civilization. The 
coast region presents a totally distinct environment, 
yet there also were the elements of advancement and 
progress. Although within the tropics, the climate is 
comparativel}^ temperate, and the rich valleys offer the 
means of acquiring not only comfort but wealth through 
skillful industry. The third region of tropical forest 



INC A CIVILIZATION 17 

invited conquest, for many of its products were in 
great request, but it was not adapted for the abode of 
a settled people. Its mighty solitudes were only dis- 
turbed by stray hunters and fishers belonging to wan- 
dering tribes ; and permanent settlements were confined 
to the ravines formed by eastern spurs of the Andes. 

The barren discussions respecting the origin of the 
red race, and the route by which men first arrived in 
America are happily at an end. The evidence is now 
conclusive that man has existed on the American con- 
tinent, from the Delaware to the river Plate, since the 
glacial epoch. As Mr. Brinton has put it — "the cul- 
ture of the American race is an indigenous growth, 
wholly self developed and owing none of its germs to 
any other race " The most ancient human vestige that 
has been found in Peru is the mummy which was dug 
up in the^ province of Tarapaca, in the year 1874. It 
was beneath the volcanic formation called chtico, which 
is itself of vast antiquity. With the body there were 
cotton twine, a woven bag, and some cobs of maize. 
Indeed the perfection to which the cultivation of maize 
and potatoes had been brought by the Peruvians, and 
their domestication of the llama and alpaca are con- 
vincing proofs of the remote antiquity of their civili- 
zation. De CandoUe tells us that maize is unknown 
in a wild state, and many centuries must have elapsed 
before the natives of the Andes could have produced 
numerous cultivated varieties of maize and potato, and 
have completely domesticated their beast of burden 
and their fleece-bearing alpaca. 

During cycles of centuries the natives of the Andean 
region were slowly advancing toward the highest type 
of civilization of which their race is capable. Ruined 
edifices of unknown date and origin built of enormous 



i8 A HISTORY OF PERU 

stones, seem to point to a period when a powerful 
empire existed in Peru, long before the rise of the 
Inca dynasty. Tradition barel}^ reaches to that remote 
past, and the ruins are almost the only witnesses to 
the existence of a forgotton but once might}' dominion. 
Its epoch may be distinguished as the megalithic period 
and its remains are met with throughout the length 
of the Peruvian Andes. 

On the southern side of Lake Titicaca, and nearly 
13,000 feet above the level of the sea, those wonderful 
ruins, which have been called Tiahuanaco since the 
dawn of history, cover an area of nearly an acre. Their 
most striking feature is the doorway carved out of a 
single block of trach^^tic rock, seven feet high b}' thir- 
teen and one-half feet in length, and one and one-half 
feet thick. The whole of the upper part from a line 
with the lintel of the portal is covered with sculpture. 
In the centre there is a figure angular]}^ but boldh^ cut 
in high relief, the head surrounded by rays, a sceptre 
clasped in each hand, terminating in the head of a 
condor. On either side of this central compartment, 
there are three tiers of figures, fort3'-eight in all, each 
in a kneeling posture and facing toward the large cen- 
tral figure. All are winged and hold sceptres termina- 
ting with condor's heads ; those in the central tier hav- 
ing condor's heads, and those in the upper and lower 
tiers having crowned human heads. This sculpture 
commemorates some great act of homage either to a 
deity or a might}^ sovereign. Among the other remains 
at Tiahuanaco there are hewn stones thirt3'-six and 
twenty-six feet long, remains of walls composed of 
enormous blocks of stone, large stones standing on end, 
and colossal statues are described by the earl}'' writers. 
There was no memory respecting these ruins at the 




'f.^.^ 



INC A CIVrLIZATION 19 

time of the Spanish conquest, and they remain an 
enigma to this day. But they point to the existence 
of the capital of a mighty empire on this spot in very 
remote times, although the establishment of such a 
centre of power on a bleak plateau at so great an ele- 
vation above the level of the sea is a phenomenon with- 
out any parallel in the history of the world. 

The work of builders of the Tiahuanaco period is 
met with in other parts of Peru. Such are the ruins of 
Sacsahuaman, on the hill above Cuzco, a fortified work, 
six hundred yards long consisting of three lines of 
wall built ot gigantic stones and arranged in salient and 
retiring angles. Some of these stones are twenty- 
seven feet, and they average fifteen feet in height^ 
irregular in shape, but fitted into each other with the 
greatest nicety. Such too are the megalithic remains 
at Ollantay-tambo near Cuzco, where later edifices are 
raised on far more ancient cyclopean foundations and 
where, as we are informed by the chronicler Cieza de 
Leon, there were sculptures as at Tiahuanaco, which 
have since been destroyed. Similar megalithic remains 
of unknown origin occur at Concacha near the Apu- 
rimac, at Huinaque, at Chavin, and at Huaraz. At 
Quecap, in Chachapoyas, there is a vast structure refer- 
able to this remote period ; and a carved stone, similar 
to those at Tiahuanaco, has been found in the depart- 
ment of Ancachs. One language prevailed throughout 
the region of megalithic edifices, and if language may \ 
be taken as a test, the ancient megalithic empire ex- 
tended from the equator to the borders of Patagonia. 

One tradition appears to have reached the posterity 
of the megalithic builders, and to have preserved the 
names and attributes of their deity. The venerated 



20 A HISTORY OF PERU 

names were "Con-Illa-Ticci-Uira-Cocha — " "the Crea- 
tor" — "the Eternal Light" — "Spirit of the Abyss""^ and 
two sacred words recorded his attributes, "Pachay- 
achachic" the teacher or regulator and "Pachacamac" 
the ruler of the universe. He is described as a being 
who created man and all living things, and the origin 
of the myth is universally attributed to the ancient 
people around Lake Titicaca. 

This megalithic empire became disintegrated in the 
course of time, and the only witnesses of its existence 
are the imperishable ruins, the prevalence of one Ian 
guage over so vast an area, and the m3^th of the cre- 
ating deity, Illa-Ticci-Uira-Cocha. Several of the 
tribes of Peru, in historic times, retained their venera- 
tion for the ancient God of their Fathers. The empire 
disappeared, but when in later ages a second empire 
was formed b}^ the Incas its rapid extension was mainl}^ 
due to the community of language, traditions, and 
institutions derived from the former age. 

At the dawn of history Peru was broken up into 
many independent ayllus'ox tribes composed of families 
of the same lineage. The Incas, Quichuas, Allcovisas, 
inhabited the valleys around Cuzco. Collas, Lupacas, 
Pacasas and Urus occupied the basin of Lake Titicaca. 
The powerful nation of Chancas dominated in the 
valleys from the Apurimac to Cerro Pasco, with the 
subordinate Pocras, Huancas, Soras and Lucanas, 
and the Chinchas on the coast. Further north, in the 
basin of the Marafion, there were many tribes in the 
region called Chincha57-suyu ; while the Scyris of 
Quito formed a centre of numerous small nations on 

*G7?2 is a word of unknown meaning. ///«, light, from Tllani, "I shine." Tied 
means "foundation," permanence," hence "eternal." "Principium rerum sine 
principio"(/4«£'« Jesuit). Uira is believed to be a form of Uayra, "air," "spirit." 
Cocha, "lake," "abyss," "space." 



INC A CIVILIZATION 21 

either side of the equator. In the northern section of 
the coast valleys, a distinct race of people was estab- 
lished under the dominion 01 the Chimu, developing 
an independent civilization. All these nationalities 
were eventually absorbed in the empire of the Incas. 
It will, therefore, be the most convenient plan to notice 
the traditions of the rise and progress of Inca power ; 
and such knowledge as we possess of the other races 
can be passed in review as they in turn succumbed to 
the absorbing or conquering forces of the Incas. First, 
however, it will conduce to a clearer comprehension of 
the history, if we consider the character and extent of 
Inca civilization. 

In the valley of the Vilcama3'u, to the south of 
Cuzco, there was a place called "Paccari-tampu, " or 
"Tampu-tocco", the one name meaning "the abode of 
dawn", and the other "the abode with windows or 
apertures." It is related that four brothers, with 
their four sisters, came forth from the apertures of the 
dawn, and that they were children of tlie Sun. They 
advanced northward. One was sealed up in a cave by 
reason of the jealousy of his brethren. Another was 
turned into stone on a hill called Huanacauri which 
became one of the most sacred spots in Inca mythol- 
ogy. Manco Capac, the surviving brother, with his 
sister wife Mama Ocllo Huaco, and his son Sinchi 
Rocca, advanced to Cuzco and established the seat of 
his government there. The place was already occupied 
by the Allcovisa tribe, but the Incas and Allcovisas 
appear to have divided the land, and to have lived 
peaceabl}^, side by side, for four generations. 

Manco Capac and his two immediate successors, 
Sinchi Rocca and Lloqui Yupanqui were fully occupied 
in consolidating the small dominion around Cuzco, and 



22 A HISTORY OF PERU 

in establishing their kindred on the newh' acquired lands. 
Under Mayta Capac, the fourth Inca, a life and death 
struggle took place between the Incas and Allcovisas, 
and the latter were vanquished. It was no longer possi- 
ble that there could be two powers on the plateau of 
Guzco. The children of the Sun began slowh^ to extend 
their dominions, but still the work of organization and 
administration was considered more important than 
that of conquest. The two successors of ]\Ia3ta Capac 
were named Capac Yupanqui and Inca Rocca. Al- 
though the Inca dominion was extended in their time, 
over the neighboring tribe of Quichuas, and as far south 
as the saddle of Vilcanota, which separates the valle}^ 
of the Vilcama3'u from the basin of Lake Titicaca, 3-et 
the attention of the Incas was still mainl}^ directed to 
the organization of rites and ceremonies, the construc- 
tion of public works, and other administrative details. 
Inca Rocca's son and successor was named Yahuar- 
Huaccac, which means literall}^ "weeping blood," pro- 
babh^ from some physical defect. His reign is said to 
have been unfortunate, although he extended the Inca 
dominion to the eastward, in the direction of the vioii- 
iana or tropical forests. His son and successor assumed 
the name of the deity, calling himself Uira-Cocha, and 
from his time there was a succession of mighty conquer- 
ors, who extended the Inca dominions until the}- almost 
reached the limits of the old empire of the megalithic 
builders. 

The religion of the Inca was the worship of the an- 
cient deit}^, stories of whose power and goodness 
had been handed down by tradition. Illa-Ticci-Uira- 
Cocha, the Creator of the universe, was the supreme 
deity of the Peruvians. His temple formed one side 
of the great square at Cuzco, and the present cathedral 



INC A CIVILIZATION 23 

is on part of its site. Here a stone statue plated with 
gold, was set up, and it formed the central point in the 
complicated ritual of the Incas. The simple faith in 
lUa-Ticci-Uira-Cocha was overlaid by a mass of super- 
stitions, represented by the cult of ancestors and the 
cult of natural objects. Every ayllu or tribe worshipped 
an imaginary ancestor, as well as the inalqui or mum- 
mies of their actual forefathers. The Incas claimed 
the Sun as their ancestor, and the observation of the 
course of the seasons led to the growth of an elaborate 
ritual in which not only the Sun, but also the Moon, 
the Stars, the Lightning, and the Rainbow received 
their share of adoration ; but always subordinate to the 
worship of the Supreme Deity. All the ayllus joined 
in this veneration of the Sun, but each also had its 
own Paccar ina or deified ancestor. These were often 
animals such as pumas or condors, or natural objects 
converted into huacas or tribal deities. Many were 
believed to be oracles. Besides these, every family 
had ene or more household gods, called conopa, repre- 
senting llamas, maize, fruit or other products on which 
its welfare depended. 

The oft recurring religious ceremonies connected with 
national festivals and family worship required a numer- 
ous caste of priests and soothsayers for their due per- 
formance. The chief priest was the oJEficial next in 
importance to the Inca or sovereign. His title of 
VlUac Umic "the head which gives counsel," indicates 
his position as chief councillor as well as pontiff, 
and he was always a member of the Incarial family 
specially selected for his learning and wisdom.. The 
Villcas were the chief priests in the provinces, and 
the ordinary ministers of religion were divided into 
sacrificing priests, speakers with oracles, hermits, per- 



24 A HISTORY OF PERU 

formers of family ceremonies, soothsayers and divin- 
ers of all kinds, and virgins of the Sun who were kept 
secluded in convents called AcUa-Jiuasi. 

Public festivals and ceremonies had reference to the 
course of the seasons as they affected the operations 
of agriculture. The times of the equinoxes and sol- 
stices had to be fixed, so that astronomical knowledge 
was one of the necessary qualifications for the priestl}^ 
office. Pillars were erected to determine the time of 
the solstices, eight on each side of Cuzco, in double 
rows, two low between two high ones. They were 
called Sucdnca from Suca a ridge or furrow, the alter- 
nate light and shade between the pillars appearing like 
furrows in a field. The time of the equinoxes was 
observed with a stone column in the centre of a circu- 
lar level platform called Inti-huatana. A line was drawn 
across the platform from east to west and watch was 
kept to observe when the shadow of the pillar was 
on this line from sunrise to sunset, and there was no 
shadow at noon. There was an Inti-]mata7ia in the 
great square of Cuzco, and four others may be seen in 
distant parts of Peru. The year was divided into 
twelve moon revolutions, and these were made to cor- 
respond with the solar year by adding five days, which 
were divided among the months. A further correc- 
tion was made every fourth year. The year commenced 
with the winter solstice of the 22nd of June, and by 
means of these observations the times of festivals were 
fixed with sufficient accuracy. 

The festival at the beginning of the year, at the 
time of the winter solstice, was in special honor of 
the Sun. The granaries were then full, after harvest. 
The images of the Sun, of the Moon, and of Light- 
ning were brought out, and placed in front of the 



INCA CIVILIZATION 25 

temple to the Supreme Being. Sacrifices of llamas and 
their lambs, and of the first fruits of the earth were 
made as thank offerings, and there was a procession 
of priests from Cuzco to Paccari-tampu, who offered 
up sacrifices at fixed points on the road. The sacri- 
fices were accompanied by prayers and concluded with 
dances and songs called IiuayIIi?ia. Then followed the 
ploughing month when the Inca himself opened the 
season by turning up a furrow with a golden plougji 
in a field behind the Colcampata palace, overlooking 
Cuzco. This festival of the winter solstice was called 

The second annual festival was celebrated at the 
vernal equinox, the commencement of the rainy season, 
when sickness usually prevailed, It was called Sifi/a. 
A body of four hundred warriors was assembled in 
the great square of Cuzco, fully armed for war : a hun- 
dred facing toward each cardinal point of the compass. 
The Inca, attended by the Villac Umu and his priests, 
then came forth from the temple of the Suprem.e Being 
and shouted — "Go forth all evils!" On the instant 
the warriors ran at great speed toward the four cardinal 
points, shouting the same sentence as they ran, until 
they reached the banks of the great rivers Apurimac 
and Vilcamayu, when they bathed and washed their 
arms. The rivers were supposed to carry the evils 
away to the ocean. As the warriors ran through the 
streets, all the people came to their doors, shaking 
their clothes and shouting "Let the evils depart!" In 
the evening they all bathed. Then they lighted great 
torches of straw, called panciircu, and, marching in 
procession, they threw them into the rivers, believing 
that thus nocturnal evils were banished. At night 
each family partook of a supper consisting of pudding 



26 A HISTORY OF PERU 

made of ground maize called sancu, which was also 
smeared over their faces and the lintels of their door- 
ways. Finally it was all washed off and thrown into 
the rivers, with the cry — "May we be free from sick- 
ness and may no maladies enter our houses. " On the 
following day the malquis or bodies of deceased Incas, 
and the family huacas were paraded, with sacrifices, 
feasting and dancing. A stone fountain, plated with 
gold, stood in the great square of Cuzco, and the Inca, 
on thi'S and other solemn festivals, poured fermented 
liquor called chicha into it from a golden vase, which 
was conducted by subterranean pipes to the temple of 
the Diety, and to the Ccuri-cancha or temple of the 
Sun. 

The third great festival was at the summer solstice, 
and was called Huaraca. On this occasion the youths 
of the empire, who attained the proper age, were 
admitted to a rank equivalent to knighthood, after 
passing through a severe ordeal. The Inca and court 
were assembled in front of the temple. Thither the 
youths were conducted by their relatives with heads 
closely shorn, attired in shirts of fine yellow wool edged 
with black, and white mantles fastened around their 
necks b}^ woolen cords with red tassels. They made their 
obeisances to the Inca, offered up prayers, and each 
presented a llama for sacrifice. This gave rise to the 
idea that the Tncas offered up human sacrifices. For 
the sacrifices were called pnric T adult man) and Juiahiia 
(child), while the}^ received the names of the youths 
who offered them. Then they marched in procession 
to the sacred hill of Huanacauri, where each received 
the httara or breeches made of aloe fibres, from the 
priest of the Huanacauri oracle. A few days afterward 
they assembled in the great square, where they were 



INC A CIVILIZATION 27 

severely whipped to prove their endurance, and received 
a staff called yauri, and usiita or sandals. The young 
candidates then had to pass a night in the desert, 
about a league from Cuzco. Next day was the foot 
race. Young girls, called " nusta^-calli'\-sapa'^' were 
stationed at the further end of the course with jars of 
chicha, who cried — "Come quickly, youths! for we are 
waiting. " But the course was a very long one, and 
many fell out before they reached the goal. They also 
had to rival each other in assaults and feats of arms. 
Finally their ears were bored and they bathed in tlie foun- 
tain called Calli-puquio. In the most prosperous times of 
the empire about eight hundred youths annually passed 
through this ordeal and became adult warriors at Cuzco, 
and the Hicaraca was also celebrated in all the pro- 
vinces. In the month following, on the summer sols- 
tice, there was a curious religious ceremony, known as 
the water sacrifice. The cinders and ashes of all the 
numerous sacrifices throughout the year were preserved. 
Dams were constructed across the two streams which 
flow through Cuzco, in order that the water might rush 
down with great force when they were removed. 
Prayers and sacrifices were offered up, and a little after 
sunset all the ashes were thrown into the streams and 
the dams taken away. The burned sacrifices were hur- 
ried down into the river, closely followed by crowds 
of people on either bank with blazing torches. Thus 
the sacrifices were carried onward to the sea. This 
strange ceremony seems to have been intended not 
only as a thank offering to the Diety, but as an ac- 
knowledgment of his omnipresence. As the offerings 
flowed with the stream they knew not whither, yet went 
to Him, so his pervading spirit was everywhere, alike 

*Princess. fValorous. :j: Unrivalled. 



28 A HISTORY OF PERU 

in parts unknown as in the visible world of the Incas. 
The fourth festival, at the autumnal equinox, was to 
celebrate the renewal of the Mosoc-nina or sacred fire, 
which was kept alive throughout the year. The fire 
was obtained by collecting the sun's ra3^s on a burn- 
ished metal mirror, and the ceremony was the occasion 
of sacrifices and pra3^ers. The year ended with the 
rejoicings of the harvest months, accompanied by songs, 
dances, and other festivities. 

Apart from these public festivals, religion entered 
into the family life of the people, and in spite of their 
superstitions and belief in sorcery, the Peruvians were 
imbued with deep religious feelings ; as is shown by 
their daily practices. A traveler, on reaching the 
summit of a pass, never omitted to throw a stone, or 
sometimes his beloved pellet of coca, on a heap by the 
road side as a thank offering to God, exclaiming 
"Apachicta-muchani !" "I worship at this heap. " Fam- 
ily ceremonials were recognized as occasional holidays. 
There was one called qui?^au at the cradling of a child ; 
another at the age of one, called rutiichica, when the 
child's hair was closely shorn and he received a name; 
another for a girl when she reached the age of puberty, 
preceded by a fast of two days, called qidcuchica. At 
all these festivities the presence of a priest was con- 
sidered necessary, to conduct the ceremonies. 

In addition to the priestly caste, there was a num- 
erous body of literary men at the Incarial capitol, con- 
sisting of Amaiitas or philosophers, poets and reciters 
of history, musical and dramatic composer?, and Quipii- 
cajnayoc, or recorders and accountants. The language, 
which received the name of Quichua from the first 
Spanish missionary who composed a grammar, owing 
to his having learned it from people of the Quichua 



INC A CIVILIZATION 29 

tribe, was spoken over a vast area of the Andean region 
of South America. It has an extensive vocabular}', is 
rich in s3monyms and in particles var3dng the meaning 
of words, and is well adapted as a vehicle for the 
thoughts and works of a civilized people. In this 
language the Yaravecs or bards recited the deeds of 
former Incas on public occasions, and these rythmical 
narratives were preserved and handed down by the 
learned men. The dances were numerous and compli- 
cated, and the Incas had both string and wind instru- 
ments of music. Dramatic compositions, both of a 
tragic and comic character were performed at the Inca 
court, and of these compositions one has been preserved 
to our own day 

The Inca drama of Apu-Ollanta, as we now have it, 
was probably divide.d into scenes, and supplied with 
stage directions at some later period ; but the dia- 
logues, speeches, and songs date from a period before 
the Spanish conquest. The time is placed in the 
reign of Yupanqui Pachacuti, one of the most famous 
of the Peruvian sovereigns. The hero of the drama 
was a chief named Ollanta, who was not of the blood 
royal, but who, nevertheless, entertained an unlawful 
love for a daughter of the Inca named Cusi Co3dlur. 

The meaning of the word Ollanta is uncertain, but 
it probably means the "Chief of the Andes." Cusi 
Coyllur means "the Jo3^ful Star. " The ^X'd.y opens 
with a dialogue between Ollanta and his servant Piqui 
Chaqui (words meaning "flea-footed"), a witt3^ and 
facetious lad, whose punning sallies form the comic 
vein which runs through the piece. Their talk is of 
Ollanta's love for the princess, and to them enters the 
High Priest of the Sun who endeavors, by a miracle, 
to dissuade the audacious warrior from his forbidden 



30 A HISTORY OF PERU 

love. In the second scene the princess herself laments 
to her mother the absence of Ollanta. Two songs of 
undoubted antiquity are introduced, the first bein^ a 
harvest ditty, and the second a love elegy. In the 
third scene Ollanta presses his suit upon the Inca, is 
scornfully repulsed, and finally bursts out into open 
defiance, in a soliloquy of great force. In the second 
act the rebellion of Ollanta is announced to the Inca, 
and a general named Rumi-naui is ordered to march 
against him. The rebels hail Ollanta as their chief 
in the second scene, and prepare to resist the armies 
of Pachacuti. In the third, Rumi-naui announces his 
total defeat by the rebel army. 

Meanwhile Cusi Coyllur had been delivered of a 
daughter, and for this crime she is immured in a dun- 
geon of the convent of virgins, while her child called 
Yma Sumac ("How-beautiful!") is brought up in the 
same building without being aware of the existence of 
her mother. The long speech in which the child relates 
to her keeper the groans she had heard in the garden, 
and the strange feelings with which they fill her mind, 
is considered to be the finest passage in the play. 
An amusing dialogue between Rumi-fiani and the scape- 
grace Piqui-Chaqui is followed by an announcement 
of the death of Pachacuti, and the accession of his son 
Yupanqui, who had been absent for many years, engaged 
in conquests. He again entrusts the subjugation of the 
rebels to Rumi-naui, who adopts a cunning stratagem. 
Concealing his army in a neighboring ravine, he pro- 
ceeds to the stronghold of the rebels, and appears 
before Ollanta covered with blood. His declaration 
that he has been treated cruell}^ b}^ the Inca, and that he 
wishes to join the rebellion, is believed. He encour- 
ages Ollanta and his followers to prolong their drunken 



INCA CIVILIZATION 31 

orgies after a religious festival, and, when all are heavy 
with liquor, he admits his own men, and captures the 
whole of the rebels. In the first scene of the third act 
there is a pathetic dialogue between Yma Sumac and 
her governess Pitu Salla, which ends in the child being 
allowed to visit her mother in the dungeon. In the 
second scene the successful stratagem of Rumifiaui 
is related to the Inca, and Ollanta is brought in a 
prisoner. The magnanimous sovereign pardons him, 
and in the midst of the ceremonies of reconciliation 
Yma Sumac bursts into the presence, and entreats 
Yupanqui to save the life of his sister and her mother. 
The Inca and his nobles are conducted to the dungeon 
of Cusi Coyllur, who was supposed to have been long 
dead. The unfortunate princess is restored to the 
arms of her lover, and they receive a blessing from the 
Inca. This truly national drama was reduced to writ- 
ing in the 17th century. There were numerous manu- 
script copies, but it was first brought to notice in 1837 
by Don Manuel Palacios, in a periodical called the 
'' Museo Erudito'' of Cuzco. Since then the text has 
been reprinted several times, and translated into Span- 
ish verse, into French, English, and Italian. It has 
undergone searching and minute criticism from com- 
petent scholars, and the conclusion is that "Ollanta" 
is a genuine drama of the Inca period. It has recently 
been made the subject of an opera. 

The system of numeration and account keeping by 
means of variously colored cords called Quipus, enabled 
the officials to keep records under various heads, and 
to transact the business of a vast empire. 'X\iQ Aniautas 
had knowledge of the healing properties plants, and an 
itinerant caste of physicians, called Calahuayas, went 
into the forest to collect them. They also had some 



32 A HISTORY OF PERU 

knowledge of surgery, and the discovery of a skull 
near Cuzco proves that the operation of trepanning 
was included in the surgical science of the Incas. 

Architecture was the art in which the Incas had 
made the most progress. At Cuzco they drained the 
ground, confined the two mountain streams which flow 
through the city within masonry walls, and erected 
edifices on the reclaimed ground, which still remain 
as witnesses to their taste and skill. They had before 
them the cyclopean ruins of their ancestors, and their 
earliest style of building is an imitation of the mega- 
lithic work on a smaller scale. The walls were built 
with polygonal shaped stones, with rough surfaces, 
but the stones were much reduced in size, as com- 
pared with the more ancient edifices. Rows of door- 
ways with slanting sides and monolithic lintels, occup}^ 
the facade, while recesses of similar character, and 
square windows, occur in the interior walls. The 
later style of Inca architecture replaces the polygonal 
stones by stones laid in regular courses, but var3ang 
in length. No cement ~ or mortar of any kind was 
used, the buildings depending for their stability on 
the accuracy with which the stones were fitted to each 
other. The palaces and temples were built around a 
court yard, and a hall of vast dimensions, large enough 
for ceremonies on an extensive scale, was included in 
the plan of most of the buildings. The dimensions of 
the Ccuri-caficha, which was the palace of the earlier 
Incas, and afterward the temple of the Sun, were two 
hundred and ninety-six feet by fift57-two. Serpents are 
carved in relief on some of the lintels of the Cuzco 
palaces. The heieht of the walls of the Cuzco edifices 
was from thirty-five to forty feet, and the roofs were 
thatched. There are many ruins throughout Peru, 



INCA CIVILIZATION 33 

both of the earlier and the later styles, and they serve 
to indicate the approximate date of Inca conquests, in 
regions where there was no earlier indigenous archi- 
tecture. Mr. Squier has borne witness that "the world 
has nothing to show in the way of stone cutting and 
fitting to surpass the skill and accuracy displayed in 
the Inca structures at Cuzco. " 

The Incas had also made progress in the metallurgic, 
ceramic, and textile arts. Gold was obtained in im- 
mense quantities by washing the sands of the rivers 
of Caravaya. Silver was extracted from the ore by 
means of blast furnaces called Jmayra. Copper was 
abundant in the Collao, and enabled the Peruvians to 
use bronze extensively. Skilful workers in metal 
fashioned the vases and other utensils for the use of 
the Inca and of the temples, forged the arms of the 
soldiers, and the implements of husbandry and stamped 
or chased the breastplates, head-gear, pins and girdles. 
Spinning, weaving, and dyeing employed a great num- 
ber of people. There were rich dresses interwoven 
with gold or made of goldthread; fine woolen mantles 
and tunics ornamented with borders of small square 
gold and silver plates; cotton cloths and tapestry worked 
in complicated though graceful patterns, and d3/ed 
with brilliant colors, and fabrics of aloe fibre and 
sheep's sinews for breeches. Coarser cloths of llama 
wool were also made in great quantities. 

But the potter's art was perhaps the one which exer- 
cised the inventive faculty of the Peruvian artist to 
the greatest extent. The ancient pottery is found 
buried with the dead in great profusion. The shapes 
are remarkable for their grace and elegance, and there 
is a certain severity and simplicity in the Inca style 



34 A HISTORY OF PERU 

which contrasts most strikingly with the exuberant 
fancy of the potters of a different race on the coast of 
Peru, as will presently be seen. The only animals 
imitated in pottery by the Cuzco artists were llamas, 
and the llama conopas are numerous. The greater part 
of the famous Centeno collection, made at Cuzco,* con- 
sists of vases and drinking cups of graceful design. 
Some of the vases are of great size, measuring over 
three feet in height. Generally they are encircled by 
simple geometric patterns in bands, sometimes with 
rows of birds and insects in minute designs. The vases 
are also molded in the form of human faces, generally 
showing so much individual character as to leave the 
impression that they are portraits. A vase represent- 
ing the coca harvest is in the form of a sitting woman 
with coca branches and leaves around her. The Inca 
artists also made fine stone dishes with serpents carved 
around them ; and cups of wood. There are two richly 
painted wooden cups, in the Centeno collection, in the 
form of the heads of jaguars. On one is painted the 
representation of a battle between an Inca army using 
slings, and the savages of the eastern forests armed 
with bows and arrows. Below there is a band of the 
various animals of the forests brightly painted. It is, 
however, but a small remnant of the objects of Peru- 
vian art that has survived, and from which we can 
form some idea of the advances the Incas had made in 
civilization. Their finest works were probabl}^ in the 
precious metals, and were melted down by the conquer- 
ors. 

The social condition of the people, and the form of 
government under which their peculiar civilization was 
originated and developed is well worthy of more than 

*Now at Berlin. 



INCA CIVILIZATION 35 

a passing glance. Peru is one of the few nations in 
which a form of socialism has obtained a firm hold on 
the people, and has been successful. 

In many respects Peru under the Incas resembled 
the Utopia of Sir Thomas More. The Incas were 
originall}^ the chiefs of a small tribe, but their great- 
ness grew with the extension of their power, until the 
child of the Sun in later times was treated with the 
utmost veneration. Each Inca left behind him numer- 
ous sons whose descendants formed separate aylliis or 
lineages, so that the later Incas were surrounded by a 
very numerous body of men of their own kindred, from 
among whom their generals and councillors were usually 
selected. The Inca himself led the armies of his peo- 
ple, presided at their festivals, and administered the 
civil government. He was called "Sapallan Inca" or 
"Sovereign Lord. " But he was only the head over many 
chiefs and was bound by a system of rules and customs, 
the germs of which had been inherited from remote 
antiquity, and which were commo"ti, more or less, to all 
the Andean tribes. During the height of Inca power 
the empire was divided into four quarters correspond- 
ing with the four cardinal points — Aiiti-suyiL to the 
east, Cunti-siiyu to the west, Chincha-suyit to the north 
and CoUa-suyu to the south ; the whole empire being 
called Ttahiia?itin-suyu or the four regions. The ayllus 
or tribes, ruled over by a Curaca, owned the land, all 
the members of a tribe being of the same line or line- 
age. The unit of government was the Chunca or union 
of ten families under an officer named Chunca-camayoc. 
A Chunca formed a complete community, its male mem- 
bers being divided into ten classes according to age : 
but of these only four classes were required to work. 



36 A HISTORY OF PERU 

I. Cuca-pallac ("Coca pickers") Lads from i6 to 20. Light work 

3. Yma-huayna (youths) young men, 20 to 25. 

4. Puric. Able bodied men. Heads of families. 

5. Chaitpi-ruccu (elderly) Age 50 to 60. Light work. 

A Chunca consisted of ten Puric with the other classes 
in proportion. The Puric was married to one wife and, 
while assisted by the young lads and elderly men, he 
supported the children and old people who were beyond 
work. The land belonged to the ayllu or tribe, and 
to each Pur'c was assigned a measure of land sufficient 
to support one man and his wife, with those dependent 
on him. The unit of land measurement was called 
tupu. Ten Chunca formed a Pachaca, under the super- 
vision of a PacJiaca-camayoc or Centurion. Ten Pachecas 
formed a Huaranca, and ten Huarancas was a Hu7iu 
consisting of 10,000 able bodied men. 

The produce of the land, whether consisting of 
crops or live stock, was divided between the govern- 
ment (^Incd), the priesthood {Huaca) and the people 
{Huacchd) in proportions fixed according to local re- 
quirements. Officers, named Runay-pachaca annually 
revised the allotments and sent in returns to be recorded 
on the quip us: while village overseers, called Llacta- 
camayoc, announced the turns for irrigation, and the 
fields to be cultivated when the shares were grown 
apart. Punishments for crimes were severe and inex- 
orably inflicted. Not a spot of cultivable land was 
neglected. Towns and villages were built on rocky hills, 
cemeteries were in deserts or in the sides of barren 
cliffs, in order that no land might be wasted. Dry 
wastes were irrigated, and terraces were constructed, 
sometimes a hundred deep, up the sides of mountains. 
The results were commensurate with the thought and 
skill expended. The Incas produced the finest potato 



INC A CIVILIZATION 37 

crops the world has ever seen. The maize of Cuzco 
has never been approached in size or yield. Coca is a 
product peculiar to Inca agriculture, requiring extreme 
care in the picking and drying processes. The capsi- 
cum of the Incas furnished a new condiment to the old 
world. Peruvian cotton is without an equal for length 
of staple and strength combined. The quinua grain^ 
oca and other edible roots, and several fruits are also 
products peculiar to Inca agriculture. 

The vast flocks of llamas and alpacas supplied meat 
for the people, dried charqui for soldiers and travelers, 
and wool for weaving cloth of every degree of fineness. 
The alpaca, with its exquisitely fine wool, may be 
said to have been the creation of the Inca shepherds. 
The wild animals of the llama tribe, the guanacos and 
vicunas, were also sources of food and wool supply- 
There were periodical hunts called chacu, when a wide 
area was surrounded by thousands of people who grad- 
ually closed in toward the centre. A great bag was 
thus secured. The females and a few of the finest 
males were released. The rest were then shorn and 
also released, except a certain proportion to be killed 
for food. 

Provision was made to supply all classes of the 
people with everything they required that was not pro- 
duced by themselves, through a system of colonies or 
mitimaes. Inhabitants of a populous district were re- 
moved to a less crowded one, the comfort of all classes 
was promoted by exchange of products, waste places 
were made fertile, and political objects were also secured. 
The people round Lake Titicaca lived in a country 
yielding potatoes, and raising large flocks, but where 
corn and fruits would not ripen. Colonies from the 
Collao were established in the coast valleys and the 



38 A HISTORY OF PERU 

eastern forests. The elevated region supplied cloth, 
dried meat, potatoes and other edible roots to the miti- 
maes; who sent in return cotton cloths, fruits, and coca. 
Under the Inca system all who could work were 
obliged to work, all lived in comfort, and there was 
ample provision for the aged, for young children, and 
for the sick. Tillers of the ground and shepherds 
received the share of produce called Huaccha, and the 
surplus went to the mitimaes in exchange for other 
products. All other workers were maintained from the 
share called Inca, including the Sovereign and his 
officers, and the army. The numerous sacrifices and 
religious ceremonies were provided for out of the 
Huaca share. No money was necessary, for every 
famil}' had a right to everything necessary for the 
nourishment and well being of its members, from the 
catu or market, without payment. In case of disaster 
to any community, caused by weather, accident, or an 
enemy, the neighboring villagers repaired all damages, 
and gave all needful help. So perfect was the Inca 
organization that it continued to work efficiently, and 
almost mechanically, for some time after the guiding 
heads had been struck down. The Spanish conquerors 
iound that when they marched through the districts, 
sacking houses and destroying growing crops, the local 
officers kept a careful record of the injury done. The 
accounts were then examined and checked, and, if one 
district had lost more than another, those that had 
suffered less made up part of the difference, so that 
the burden might be shared equally b}^ all. Under such 
a system there could be no want, for thought was taken 
for the nourishment and comfort of every creature. 
There was hard work, while provision was made not 



INC A CIVILIZATION 39 

only for rest, but also for recreation. The dreams of 
socialists were made a reality in the system which grew 
up and flourished under the rule of the Incas. 



CHAPTER II 

INCA EMPIRE 

The Inca system was aggressive, for its successful 
working depended on its extension over wide areas. 
As soon as the government was firmly established 
around Cuzco, the career of absorption and conquest 
began. The Inca led the armies. His distinctive 
dress was the crimson fringe called llautu, which formed 
part of the mas capaycha or head dress surmounted by 
the plume of alcamari feathers. He held the suntiir- 
paucar or royal sceptre, and the shield. His generals 
wore a yellow fringe, and the different tribes, with 
their chiefs, were each distinguished by a particular 
headdress. The arms of the Incas consisted of an ax 
of copper called champi, a lance called chuqui, and a 
club with a wooden handle and a bronze or stone 
head in the shape of a five pointed star. The Collas 
were armed with slings, and the troops from the east- 
ern forests, called Antis, used bows and arrows. The 
defensive armor consisted of the head-dress or uma- 
chiicu, the hualcanca or shield, and sometimes a breast- 
plate of quilted cotton. The Inca nobles wore a large 
disc of gold. 

Military roads were constructed through ever}^ newly 



INCA EMPIRE 41 

annexed country, which radiated from Cuzco to the 
remotest frontiers of the empire. They were level and 
well paved, continuing for hundreds of miles. Rocks 
were broken up, ravines were filled, and excavations 
were made in mountain sides. The width of these 
roads was from twenty to twenty-five feet. Co7'pa-huasi 
or rest houses were erected at intervals, with maga- 
zines stored with provisions and clothing for the troops. 
There were relays of running messengers, cahed 
chasquis, at the rest houses, so that orders and news 
were transmitted with marvellous celerity. These mes- 
sengers, as well as soldiers on the march, were ena- 
bled to endure almost incredibly long marches at high 
speed, by chewing coca. The Inca himself traveled in 
a litter borne on the shoulders of mountaineers from 
the *Sora and Lucana districts. 

The first great conqueror among the Incas was Uira- 
cocha, and his invasion of the basin of Lake Titicaca 
possibly offers an explanation of his having adopted 
the name of the ancient Deity. For the tradition was 
derived from the mighty builders of Tiahuanaco. But 
there was no sign of the ancient civilization when the 
Tnca Uira-cocha entered the Collao. The upland region 
was inhabited by tribes of shepherds speaking a very 
rude dialect of Quichua, (erroneously called Aymara 
by the later Spanish writers) in which they were una- 
ble to count beyond four. They worshipped the sun 
under the name of Lupi, and built towers of rough 
stones over their dead chiefs, called Chulpas. After 
the Inca conquest these Cliulpas were greatly improved, 
and the towers at Sillustani are built in the best style 
of Inca masonry. The tribes were called CoUa, Lupaca, 
and Pacasa, the most important and numerous being 
the Collas ; and there was also a small tribe living in 



42 A HISTORY OF PERU 

balsas among the reeds in the south-west angle of Lake 
Titicaca called Uru, with a distinct language called 
Puquina by the Spanish missionaries. These tribes do 
not appear to have made any prolonged resistance, 
and the Inca ascendancy was soon established. They 
continued loyal, and furnished a very important con- 
tingent of slingsmen to the imperial army. At the 
same time the}' derived great benefit from their subju- 
gation, through the introduction of orderly government 
and the establishment of mitiiiiaes or colonies in the 
coast valleys and in the eastern forests. The Inca 
built a palace on the island of Titicaca, with terraced 
gardens, baths, and fountains, where he could enjoy 
lovely scenery in comparative seclusion near the mighty 
ruins of Tiahuanaco, the legendary cradle of his race. 
The Inca empire, under Uira-cocha, included the 
whole of the basin of Lake Titicaca called Colla-suyu, 
and numerous ravines on the eastern slope of the 
Andes, called Anti-suyu. In the lovely valley of the 
Vilca-mayu, east of Cuzco, he had built an enchant- 
ing palace called Yucay, with baths and sjardens, and 
others at Chinchero and at Limatamba (Rimac tampu) 
to the north-west. But beyond Limatamba his power 
only extended to the deep ^orge of the Apurimac. On 
the other side of that river was the rival power of the 
Chancas, 

The Chancas were rivals of the Incas, speaking the 
same language, and enjoying a kindred civilization. At 
Vilcas-huaman, in the vahey of the Pampas, they had 
erected edifices similar to those of the earlier period 
of Inca architecture. The existing ruins contain walls 
which must have been erected by the Incas at a later 
period. They had formed a confederation of tribes 
including the Pocras of Guamanga, the Huancas of 




HUASCAR. 



Inca Manco Capac. 



INCA EMPIRE 43 

Xauxa, the Yauyos, Soras, and Rucanas on the western 
slopes of the maritime cordillera, and probably the 
Chinchas who inhabited the coast valleys from Barran- 
ca, to the north of Lima, as far as Nasca. The Chanca 
confederation was led by warlike chiefs, and sooner 
or later a death struggle was inevitable between the 
Incas and Chancas. 

Uira-cocha had two sons named Urco and Yupanqui. 
In extreme old age he retired to the palace of Yucay, 
leaving the cares of government to his eldest son and 
successor, Urco. A few years afterv/ard the Chanca 
chiefs assembled a vast army, and began to subjugate 
the Quichuas and other subjects of the Incas. Urco 
seems to have underrated the danger until the enemy 
was almost in sight of Cuzco. Then his brother Yu- 
panqui summoned all the tribes, and a desperate bat- 
tle was fought on the heights above Cuzco, which 
decided the fate of the Inca empire. Victory was long 
doubtful, but at length the Chancas fell back, to form 
again on a great plain called Sacsahuana. A second 
battle ended in the complete route of the Chancas and 
the shattered remnant fled across the Apurimac. The 
place was long known as Yahuar-pampa or the field of 
blood. 

Yupanqui returned in triumph to Cuzco, where Urco 
was deposed as incompetent, and his victorious brother 
became Inca, with the title of Pachacutec or "Reformer 
of the World. " A trophy of the bodies of the van- 
quished Chancas long remained on the battlefield, and 
was seen by the Spaniards when they first came to 
Cuzco. The subjugation of all the tribes of the Chanca 
confederacy was the result of the victories gained by 
Pachacutec. There was some slight resistance, and 
a few of the pucaras or hill forts stood long sieges. 



44 A HISTORY OF PERU 

But at length the proud leader of the Chancas, named 
Astu-huaraca, gave up hope, and retired, with a few 
chosen followers, into the recesses of the forests, in 
the valley of the Huallaga. The rich valleys of Anda- 
huaylas and Guamanga, and many more became part 
of the Inca empire. Next the Soras, Rucanas, and 
Yauyos on the western slopes of the maritime Cordil- 
lera, as well as the Huancas of the Xauxa valley sub- 
mitted. The generals of Pachacutec also subjugated 
the more northern tribes in Conchucos, and Caxamarca, 
as well as the coast valley from Barranca to Nasca. 

The Peruvian coast was originally inhabited by a 
diminutive race of men called Changes, who lived by 
fishing. But in very remote times these Changes were 
driven from the more fertile valleys and took refuge 
along the arid shores of Tarapaca. The coast valleys 
of Rimac (the modern Lima) Chilca, Mala, Chincha, 
Pisco, Yea, Palpa, and Nasca, were occcupied by peo- 
ple speaking the Quichua language, allied to the Chan- 
cas, who descended from the Cordilleras. They were 
a people of marvelous industry, as is shown by their 
admirable system of irrigation by means of underground 
channels, in the valley of Nasca. They had a compli- 
cated mythology, the details of which are only partially 
known to us, and two of their temples were renowned 
for their oracles. One was known as Rimac or "he 
who speaks," and the other, on an artificial hill at the 
mouth of the river of Lurin, was called Pachacamac, 
a name referring to one of the attributes of the Supreme 
Deity of the Peruvians. These coast valleys willingly 
received the Inca rule and submitted gladh^, the only 
resistance being made in the valley of Huarcu (now 
Cafiete) where there was a colony of people of a differ- 
ent race from the northern coast valleys. The Incas 



INCA EMPIRE 45 

met with a far other reception when the}' invaded the 
valleys farther north, inhabited by a distinct race well 
advanced m civilization. 

The Inca Pachacutec had thus so mightily enlarged 
the limits of his dominions, that at his death he was 
the ruler over a vast empire. He had also consoli- 
dated the Inca rule, and developed the system of viiti- 
maes or colonies. He was succeeded by his son Tupac 
Inca Yupanqui, who was a still more renowned con- 
queror than his father. 

Along the coast of Peru, from Tumbez at the entrance 
of the Gulf of Guayaquil to Huallmi (Guarmey) in 
io° S, or perhaps to Ancon in ii°4o'S, a distance of 
about six hundred miles, the valleys were peopled by 
a race which was entirely distinct, as regards origin 
and language, from the Quichua speaking tribes of the 
mountains. These valleys, commencing from the north 
were : — 



Tumbez 

Chira (Tangarara) 
Piura (Sechura) 
*Morrope (Jayanca) 
*Leche (Lambayeque) 
*Eten (Chiclayo) 



Viru (Huanapu) 

Chao 

Santa (Chimbote) 

Huambacho (Nepeiia) 

Casma. 

Huallimi (Guarmey) 



*Sana I Pativilca (Barranca) Huaman? 
*Jequetepeque (Pacasmayu) Parmunca of G. de la Vega. 

*Chicama Supe 

* \ Moche (Truxillo) I Huara 

\ Chimu I Chancay (Ancon) 

Separated from each other by arid deserts, their 
inhabitants industriously extended the areas of culti- 
vation and developed a remarkable civilization. Their 
language, called Mochica, is now extinct, but a gram- 
mar of it was made by a Spanish priest at a time when 
it was still spoken in nine of the coast valleys. The 



46 A HISTORY OF PERU 

language is radically distinct from Quichua, both in 
construction and vocabulary, proving that the people 
who spoke it must have had a different origin. They 
cannot, therefore, have come from the mountains where 
Quichua was the universal language. They must have 
come from the sea. The greatest chief, to whom those 
of the other valleys owed allegiance was the Chimu, 
who dwelt in the valley where the Spanish city of 
Truxillo was afterward built. Of his origin no stor}^ 
has been preserved. We are told that the people of 
several valleys gave different accounts of their origins, 
and the tradition of the Lambayeque founder has been 
handed down. It was said that a large fleet of rafts 
arrived off the coast about five hundred 5^ears before 
the Spanish conquest, led by a personage of great tal- 
ent and bravery named Na3milap, whose wife was 
named Ceterni. Naymlap landed with his followers 
at Lamba3/eque, established his rule over the valle3% 
and built a temple at Chot, containing an idol of green 
stone called Llampallec. The officers of his household 
consisted of a trumpeter, a singer, an official in charge 
of the thrones and litters, another to prepare the baths, 
a chief cook, a purveyor, one in charge of unguents 
and paints, and an artist in feathers named Llapchilulli. 
After a long and prosperous reign Naymlap was suc- 
ceeded by his son Cuim who had twelve children, and 
after him the names of ten successors have been pre- 
served. The last was Tempellec in whose reign there 
was a great calamity. It poured with rain for thirty 
days, a thing never known before in that region : and 
this phenomenon was followed b}' pestilence and famine. 
The calamity was imputed to some sacrilege committed 
by Tempellec, and the priests threw him into the sea. 
Thus ended the Naymlap dynasty. The people, after 



INCA EMPIRE 47 

a short interval, submitted to the Chimu, who placed 
a chief over them named Pongmassa. His descendant 
in the sixth generation was reigning at Lambayeque 
when the Spaniards came. One of the officers of the 
household of Naymlap became chief of Ja3^anca near 
Lambayeque. This was Llapchilulli, the artist in 
feathers. His descendant Caxusoli was chief of Jay- 
anca at the time of the Spanish conquest. 

Although there is no such detailed tradition respect- 
ing the origin of the Chimu, the ruins of buildings and 
other vestiges leave no doubt of his greatness, and 
seem to corroborate the statements of Spanish chroni- 
clers that he held sovereignty over the other chiefs of 
the northern coast valleys. The ruins of the vast pal- 
aces of the Chimu are in the valley of the river Moche, 
near the modern city of Truxillo. They are surrounded 
by remains of an ancient city, with great artificial 
mounds on which the temples were probably erected. 
The palace was near the sea shore. The walls of the 
principal hall, which was one hundred by fifty-two 
feet in size, are covered with an intricate and very 
effective series of arabesques worked in relief. A neigh- 
boring hall, with walls stuccoed in color, is entered by 
passages and skirted by openings leading to small 
chambers seven feet square, which may have been used 
as dormitories. A long corridor leads from the back 
of the arabesque hall to some recesses where gold and 
silver vessels have been found. At a short distance 
from the palace there is a sepulchral mound where 
many relics have been discovered. The bodies were 
wrapped in cloths woven in ornamental figures and 
patterns of different colors. On some of the cloths 
plates of silver were sewed, the silver being cut into 
the shapes of birds and fishes, and they were edged 



48 A HISTORY OF PERU 

with borders of feathers. Among the ruins of the city 
tnere are great rectangular areas enclosed by massive 
walls, and containing buildings, courts, streets, and 
reservoirs for water. The largest, about a mile south 
of the palace, is five hundred and fifty by four hun- 
dred yards, the outer wall being thirty feet high, and 
ten feet thick at the base, the sides inclining toward 
each other. Some of the interior walls are highly 
ornamented in stucco patterns, and in one part there is 
an edifice containing forty-five chambers or cells. The 
enclosure also included a reservoir four hundred and 
fifty feet long by one hundred and ninety-five feet 
wide, and sixty feet deep. 

The dry climate favored the adornment of outer 
walls by color, and those of the Chimu palace were 
covered with tasteful sculptured patterns. Figures of 
colored birds and animals are said to have been painted 
on the walls of temples and palaces. The custom 
prevalent among the Chimus of depositing with their 
dead all objects of daily use, as well as ornaments and 
garments used by them during life, enables the inquirer 
to gain an insight into the social history of this interest- 
ing people. Enormous quantities of pottery, silver 
and gold ornaments, and richly embroidered mantles 
have been found in most of the valleys, and the recent 
researches of Reuss and Steubel in the necropolis of 
Ancon have been very important. 

In their pottery they imitated every bird and mammal 
that was known to them with marvelous skill, as well as 
reptiles,crustaceans, shells, and fruits of all kinds. They 
also molded human heads, some of the faces being evi- 
dently portraits, and others most grotesque, showing 
much humor and imagination in the artist. On the 
sides of some of the Chimu vases, scenes are painted 



INCA EMPIRE 49 

which may help to throw light on the customs and 
beliefs of the people. There are curious winged fig- 
ures, war dances, and a dance of death including peo- 
ple of all ages, with a skeleton pla3^ing to them. A 
harvest vase' of maize, shows the heads of children 
peeping out among the corn cobs. Some specimens 
of Chimu pottery portray obscene acts, which is never 
the case m the art relics of the Incas. The subjects of 
the Chimu included inhabitants of mountain slopes 
and ravines on the western watershed of the maritime 
Cordillera, and the very remarkable pottery found at 
Recuay, in the Callejon de Huaylas, may probably be 
attributed to Chimu influence. The Recuay pottery is, 
however, of a character quite peculiar to itself. On 
the tops or upper sides of the vases there are groups 
of figures. On one a chief with a cup in his hand, 
and councillors sitting around him : on another the same 
with a boy just presenting the cup : on another a judge 
with advisers or witnesses, and a criminal. Other 
vases have figures representing soldiers defending a fort, 
and vultures on a dead body. The pottery is black 
and there is also red and j^eilow ware. 

Baskets and mats have been found in great quanti- 
ties, and work-baskets of plaited grass dyed in pat- 
terns, and containing balls of thread, finger rings, 
wooden and clay to3's, spindles richly carved and 
painted, and attached to them are terra cotta c^dinders 
used as wheels, also richly painted in patterns. But 
perhaps the most interesting discoveries have been 
the textile fabrics of the Chimus ; consisting of beau- 
tifully figured tapestry, embroidery, and patchwork, 
cotton cloths, rich fringes, broad girdles of tapestry 
work, and fine cotton muslin. The dyes are exceed- 
ingly bright, and the colors most tastefully combined. 



50 A HISTORY OF PERU 

The splendor of their feather work shows to what per- 
fection this art had been brought, and accounts for the 
great reward conferred on the feather artist of Na3^m- 
lap. Magnificent head dresses have been found with 
crests and flaps, covered with 5'ellow, red, and bhie 
feathers of the great macaw in patterns, amongst which 
are two human figures in blue and yellow on a red 
ground. In a second head dress the crest is formed 
of axillary feathers of a white and brown curlew, curi- 
ously bound on small sticks. 

The objects in metal also display artistic taste, con- 
sisting of pins, necklaces, bracelets, and earrings. One 
beautiful necklace, found near Chicama, is formed of 
nine circular hollow silver boxes in the shape of human 
faces, diminishing in size on each side from the centre, 
linked together with silver wire. Another consists of 
three large and seventy-one small flat circular discs of 
silver, strung together. 

Among the weapons have been found copper knives, 
axes, and lance heads, and star shaped club heads in 
copper, each ray being stamped with a human head, with 
the faces alternately reversed. 

The rulers of the coast valleys are said to have had 
great houses raised on adobe pillars, with doorways 
hung with matting, built on extensive terraces. These 
chiefs were magnificently and luxuriously dressed, and 
were fond of drinking bouts, and of dancing and sing- 
ing. The walls of the houses were painted with bright 
colored patterns and figures. Such places, rising above 
the groves of fruit trees, with the Andes bounding the 
view in one direction, and the ocean in the other, 
were suitable abodes for joy and feasting. Around 
them were the fertile valleys peopled by industrious 
cultivators and carefully irrigated. Their works of 



INC A EMPIRE 51 

irrigation were indeed on a gigantic scale. In the 
valley of Nepena the ancient reservoir is three-fourths 
of a mile long and more than half a mile broad, con- 
sisting of a massive dam eighty feet thick at the base, 
carried across c. gorge between two rocky hills. It was 
supplied by two canals at different elevations, one start- 
ing sixteen miles up the valley and the other from 
springs five miles distant. 

It is probable that the coast people enjoyed a long 
period of peace, and that their luxurious lives, com- 
bined with the enervating effects of the climate, had 
made them effeminate and unwarlike. The Chimu, 
however, had erected a great frontier fortress at Par- 
munca, about six miles from the present Rio de la Bar- 
ranca, to protect his dominions from the inroads of 
Quichua speaking people inhabiting the valleys to the 
south. The fortress consisted of three lines of mud 
walls, the exterior seven hundred and the interior six 
hundred feet long, inclosing numerous buildings, and 
there were outworks ninety feet from each angle of 
the exterior wall. The walls were plastered, and 
painted with representations of birds and beasts. When 
the conquering Inca Tupac Yupanqui resolved to sub- 
due the country of the Chimu, he assem.bled his forces 
in the southern valleys where he received active assist- 
ance from the Quichua speaking inhabitants. These 
Quichuan coast people appear to have had a constant 
feud with their neighbors, who were of a different race 
and spoke a distinct language. The fortress of Par- 
munca, protecting the southern frontier of the territory 
of the Chimu, was captured after a prolonged resist- 
ance. This was followed by the subjugation of all 
the coast valleys as far as Tumbez. No reliable details 
of the Chimu war have been preserved, but the resist- 



52 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ance was probably desperate and prolonged ; for the 
capital of the Chimu remained in ruins, and large bod- 
ies of his people were transported into the Andes as 
mitimaes. Warned by his fate, the people of the other 
valleys made no resistance, for we find that the Inca 
allowed the native chiefs of Guanape, Lambayeque 
and Jayanca to remain in tranquil possession of their 
territories. A military road was constructed along the 
coast, from one valley to another, by order of the Inca. 
It was fifteen feet in width, was shaded by trees, carefully 
paved, and had a wall on either side to prevent sand 
from accumulating on the footways. Wooden posts 
were also erected to show the line of road across the 
deserts. 

Having completed the conquest of the coast, the 
Inca Tupac Yupanqui extended his dominions south- 
ward to Tucuman and Chile, making the river Maule 
his southern frontier. He then advanced northward 
with a large arm}^, building and establishing colonies 
on the road. It is probable that the extensive ruins 
near Huanuco were erected at this time, as a base 
whence the Inca conquests were extended to Chacha- 
poyas, and down the valleys of the Maranon and Hual- 
laga. He fought the warlike tribes near the frontier 
of Quito, during several campaigns, but eventually 
subjugated them, and built a fortified palace at Tumi- 
bamba in the country of the Canaris. Finally he an- 
nexed Quito to his empire, where he found a civilized 
people speaking a dialect of the Quichua language. 
Tupac Yupanqui advanced from Quito to Manta, on 
the sea coast north of Guayaquil, and it is related by 
Balboa that he collected a large fleet of rafts, and put 
to sea to make further discoveries. He reached two 
islands named Nina-Chumpi and Hahua-Chumpi, which 



INC A EMPIRE 53 

may mean the "fire island" and the "outer island." 
If this curious tradition is founded on facts, these must 
have been two of the Galapagos Islands. Tupac Inca 
Yupanqui, the greatest of the Inca Conquerors, died at 
Cuzco after a long reign, and was followed by his son 
Huayna Capac. 

The new Inca succeeded to a vast and well organ- 
ized empire. His first campaign extended to Tucuman 
and Chile, but the greater part of his reign was passed 
at Tumi-bamba where he was born, or in making war 
with the tribes north of Quito, When he departed 
from Cuzco with a large army to undertake his northern 
campaigns, he left behind him his legitimate heir Inti 
Cusi Hualpa, who was surnamed Huascar from the 
golden chain (huascar) which was forged for the dances 
at his birth. The next son Manco also remained at 
Cuzco. But Huayna Capac took with him his consort 
Mama Rahua OcUo, the mother of Huascar, and an 
illegitmate son named Atahualpa. 

Huayna Capac established his headquarters at Tumi- 
bamba, where he enlarged the palace built by his 
father. A military road was completed from Quito 
to Cuzco, and contingents were brought up from all 
parts of the empire, to complete the northern con- 
quests. A long and bloody war was waged with a pow- 
erful tribe north of Quito, called Caranguis, which 
concluded with a frightful slaughter of the enemy on 
the banks of a lake which received the name of Yahuar- 
Cocha — "the lake of blood." Huayna Capac also con- 
quered Puna, in the gulf of Guayaquil, and suppressed a 
rebellion of the inhabitants of that island with great 
severity. After the defeat of the Caranguis, the north- 
ern limit of the Inca Empire was fixed at the river 



54 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Ancasmayu, north of Quito. The distance thence to 
the river Maule in Chile is 2,200 miles. 

Huayna Capac, after a long reign of over forty years, 
died at Tumi-bamba in December 1525, or as others say 
at Quito. The body was conveyed to Cuzco by four noble 
chieftains who were the Inca's executors, accompanied 
by the widow Mama Rahua, mother of Huascar. But 
Atahualpa declined to leave Quito, where he had secured 
the friendship of the most powerful native chiefs. 
When the news reached Cuzco, Huascar was at once 
elected and proclaimed Inca. The body of his father 
was received with great solemnity, but the executors 
were put to death unjustly, for not bringing Atahualpa 
with them. The first measure of the new Inca was to 
send an expedition to complete the subjugation of 
Chachapoyas ; but he soon had to turn all his attention 
to the proceedings of his brother. An embassy arrived 
from Atahualpa, congratulating Huascar on his acces- 
sion, and requesting perm.ission for himself to remain 
in Quito. The envoys were dismissed with a discour- 
teous answer to the effect that as Atahualpa was there 
he might remain there until further orders. Soon after- 
ward the chief of the Canaris secretl}^ sent to inform 
Huascar that his brother was receiving honors as a 
sovereign. Meanwhile Atahualpa was full of anxiety, 
and he resolved to despatch a youth named Quilaco 
Yupanqui, a son of one of the executors of Hua5ma 
Capac, with another conciliatory message, as the young 
ambassador was a favorite with the Queen mother, 
Mama Rahua. 

The Queen received the youthful envoy at a place 
called Siquillibamba near Cuzco, surrounded by the 
most beautiful of her maidens. Among them the love- 
liest was Ccuri-coyllur (Golden Star) who is said to 



INCA EMPIRE SS 

have been an illegitimate daughter of Huascar. She was 
certainly the favorite dependent of the Inca's sister 
Cahua-ticlla, who had educated her with great care. 
She was about fifteen years of age when Quilaco Yupan- 
qui first saw and loved her, and he perceived that his 
love was returned. But he was obliged to hurry on to 
Galea, in the valley of the Vilcamayu, where the Inca 
then was, to deliver his message. Huascar was more 
enraged than ever against his brother, scorned to receive 
his presents, and dismissed his envoy. On his depar- 
ture from Cuzco the young ambassador declared his 
love for Ccuri-coyllur, and received permission from 
her aunt to visit her. The maiden awaited the arrival 
of her lover in her home near Cuzco, and at length, 
just as she was abandoning all hope, he came out of 
a field of lofty maize, and threw himself at her feet. 
He entreated Cahua-ticlla to allow their union, and 
she so far yielded as to promise that the girl should 
not be given to any other suitor for three years. Quil- 
aco bade them farewell, and continued his journey to 
Quito. 

It was at this time, when Quilaco was recounting 
the result of his mission to Atahualpa at Tumi-bamba, 
that two wonderful strangers were brought before the 
prince. These were the Spaniards whom Pizarro had 
allowed to remain behind, when he visited Tumbez 
the first time, in 1527. Their captors described the 
ships and the arms of the mysterious visitors, and the 
two white men were sent to Quito, where they are said 
to have been sacrificed. But in reality their fate is 
unknown. 

After m.uch hesitation, and being convinced that 
there was nothing but hostility to be expected from his 
brother, Atahualpa resolved to assume the ensigns and 



56 A HISTORY OF PERU 

titles of sovereignty. He advanced to Quito and was pro- 
claimed Inca. As soon as the news reached the capi- 
tal, Huascar was beside himself with rage. He assem- 
bled a large arm}^, gave the command to a valiant chief 
named Atoc, and ordered him to march to Quito and 
slay or capture the audacious rebel. Atoc advanced 
to Tumi-bamba, where he was joined by the Cafiari 
tribe ; while Atahualpa got together all the forces he 
could muster, and placed them under the command of 
his two most trusted councillors, Quizquiz Rumi-nani 
and Chalcuchima. The Quito generals resolved to dis- 
pute the advance of the Inca army at the bridge over 
the river of Ambatu. Atoc was victorious in the first 
encounter and the troops of Quito fled ; tut they were 
rallied by Atahualpa himself at Anaquito, and again 
faced the foe in the defile of Mulli-ambatu. This time 
the Inca army was hopelessly routed, Atoc and the 
chief of the Cafiaris being made prisoners and put to 
death. Huascar, on receiving news of the disaster, 
despatched another army to Tumi-bamba under the 
command of his brother Huanca-auqui. Here the new 
general was attacked by the victorious troops of Ata- 
hualpa and, after a desperate battle which lasted two 
days, he succeeded in forcing them to retreat to a hill 
called MuUoturo. But in attacking their defences, 
Huanca-auqui was repulsed, and suffered such serious 
losses that he was obliged to abandon Tumi-bamba, 
and fall back on Cusi-bamba. As soon as the Incas 
had departed, Atahualpa wreaked a cruel vengeance on 
the Canaris for their loyalty to his brother, sparing 
neither age nor sex. Where there were once flourish^ 
ing villages, nothing remained but charred timbers and 
whitening bones. 

Atahualpa now collected the largest army he had 



INCA EMPIRE 57 

yet placed in the field, giving the command to Quiz- 
quiz with orders to extend the southern boundary of 
his territory to the river of Yana-mayu, within two 
days' journey of Caxamarca. Young Quilaco Yupanqui 
was entrusted with the command of a reserve force. 
The Incas under Huanca-auqui were again defeated 
and that general began a retreat to Cuzco, but he met 
large reinforcements at Bombon and offered battle 
once more. Again he was defeated and Huascar, on 
receiving news of these repeated disasters, was almost 
ready to give the struggle up in despair. But his coun- 
cillors urged him to make further efforts. More rein- 
forcements were sent forward under a general named 
Mayta Yupanqui with orders to supersede Huanca- 
auqui. 

The war had now continued for four years, and 
Ccuri-coyllur had vainly waited for her lover. Quilaco 
Yupanqui had promised to return in three years, and the 
Inca now ordered that the unfortunate maiden should 
be married to one of his captains. She was resolved 
to die rather than submit to this detested union. Cut- 
ting off her long hair, and putting on the clothes of one 
of the humblest of her men-servants, she joined the 
camp, and mixed herself among the followers of the 
army as a page named Titu. 

After his defeat the Inca general, Huanca-auqui had 
retreated to the valley of Xauxa, where he was joined by 
a fresh army under Mayta Yupanqui, with Titu as one 
of the camp followers. The new general assumed com- 
mand, and advanced to meet Quizquiz in the valley of 
Yanamarca, between Tarma and Xauxa. I'he battle 
lasted all day and the victory was long doubtful : but 
in the evening the exhausted Incas began a retreat. 
Quilaco Yupanqui, leading the pursuit with his fresh 



58 A HISTORY OF PERU 

reserve, fell desperatel}^ wounded by an arrow, and 
was lost among a heap of slain. He would have per- 
ished miserably if he had not been found by a 3^oung 
lad, who extracted the arrow, bound up his wounds, 
and helped him to drag his body into a small hut near 
the battle-field. Here the boy nursed the sorely wound- 
ed chief, who was at death's door for many months. 
He told Quilaco that his name was Titu. 

Mayta Yupangui retreated with the remains of his 
army to Villcas, while the Inca Huascar and the people' 
of Cuzco were again plunged into despair. A general 
fast was ordained, sacrifices were offered up, and pray- 
ers were made to the Supreme Deity, and above all to 
the sacred huaca at Huanacauri. Troops hurried north- 
ward not onl}^ from Colla-su}^, but from the remote 
provinces of Chile and Tucuman, while the Inca himself 
encamped, in the midst of a new arm}', on the plain 
of Sacsahuana. Huanca-auqui was ordered to occupy 
the bridge over the Apurimac. The reinforcements com- 
ing from Chile encountered a strong detachment of 
the Quito army led b}^ Chalcuchima, which was march- 
ing toward Cuzco by a circuitous route to the south. 
The Chileans gained a complete victor5^ But the de- 
cisive action which was to decide the fate of the Inca 
empire was at hand. The two armies met on the 
banks of the river Cotabamba, and Quizquiz was forced 
to retreat to the other side, where he entrenched him- 
self. The Incas returned to their camp at sunset, intend- 
ning to assault the enemy's position next morning. 

As soon as Quizquiz and Chalcuchima perceived this 
they resolved to anticipate the attack. At early dawn 
the Inca camp was surprised. The soldiers flew to 
arms, and made a stout resistance : but the}^ had not 
been properly formed, and fought at a disadvantage. 



INCA EMPIRE 59 

The full fury of the battle raged around a place called 
Chontacaxas. The carnage continued until noon. Then, 
by a vigorous effort, Quizquiz dispersed the royal 
guard, upset the litter, and made a prisoner of the Inca 
Huascar. His followers, as soon as the capture became 
known, fled in all directions, leaving their principal 
chiefs in the power of the Quito rebels. Quizquiz ad- 
vanced his camp to Quisipoy, on a height within view 
of the palaces of Cuzco, 

With their sovereign in the power of the insurgents, 
the lords of Cuzco abandoned all idea of further resist- 
ance. They submitted to the conqueror who, by all 
accounts, used his victory with merciless cruelty. 
Quizquiz is accused of having committed an atrocious 
massacre of all the Incas and their families, but this 
must be an exaggertion, for as many as five hundred 
and sixty-seven members of the Inca family, in the 
male line, signed a petition to Philip III. in 1603. 
Manco, the next heir to the throne, and his brother 
Paullu, certainly made their escape with many others, 
and remained free. 

Atahualpa received the news of his victories with 
great joy, and celebrated a splendid thanksgiving fes- 
tival at Tumi-bamba. But at the same time there 
came to him the portentous tidings that the Spaniards 
had landed on the coast. He commenced his march 
to Caxamarca, and sent orders to Quizquiz and Chal- 
cuchima, that Huascar, his principal officers, and his 
mother should be brought to him. 

Meanwhile Titu had been nursing Quilaco Yupanqui 
in the hut near the battle field of Yanamarca for six long 
months. At the end of that time he was convalescent, 
and his faithful attendant went forth to obtain news 
for him, of what had been happening in the outer 



6o A HISTORY OF PERU 

world. One day she entered the town of Xauxa with 
this object, and found the place occupied by strange 
and powerful beings. These were Spaniards under 
the command of Hernando de Soto and Pedro del 
Barco. She returned to Quilaco to tell him that 
power had passed away from the Incas forever, and to 
speak to him of the wonderful strangers who seemed 
to have come as messengers from God. Eventually 
she revealed herself to him as Ccuri-coyllur, and they 
both sought the presence of Hernando de Soto and 
told him their story, through an interpreter. They 
were baptized, one Vv^ith the name of Hernando, the 
other of Leonor, and were married according to the 
laws of the church. Two years afterward Hernando 
Quilaco died ; and the widow bore several children to 
de Soto, one of whom married a notary named Carrillo 
and settled at Cuzco. Thus do the tales of romantic 
love interweave themselves with records of the fate 
of empires. 

The marvelous conquests of the Incas were achieved 
by four generations of sovereigns and yet, in nearly 
every case, the conquered people appear to have been 
at once absorbed and assimilated, so that the empire, 
while its limits were continually enlarged, remained 
homogenous. This is probably to be accounted for in 
two ways. The whole region within which the Qui- 
chua language was spoken had, in remote times, been 
under one rule, and when the ancient empire became 
disintegrated, the numerous tribes of which it was com- 
posed retained the same traditions, the same tenden- 
cies and habits of thought. Their subsequent con- 
quest or absorption into the newer system found them 
prepared to fall naturally into their places as members 
of an empire, the component parts of which were in 



INC A EMPIRE 6 1 

ail things like themselves. The second reason may be 
found in the fact that the Inca organization was pecu- 
liarly adapted for assimilating new tribes. Provision 
was at once made for the welfare of the families com- 
posing them, and in a very short time the system of 
exchanging products identified the wants and desires 
of the conquered people wiih the prosperity and exten- 
sion of the empire of their conquerors. These con- 
siderations serve to account for the rapid spread, by 
means of conquest, of a system closely allied to social- 
ism, a system which was dependent for its successful 
working on the good-will of the people, although its 
existence was impossible without a strong centralizing 
government. In almost all cases the chiefs of newly 
acquired provinces retained their positions and their 
influence when they became vassals of the Inca, and 
only one instance is recorded of the pride of the sub- 
jugated chief being too strong to admit of his submis- 
sion. The chiefs of the Chancas stood alone in their 
haughty refusal to accept the new position, and in 
their preference of exile to the acceptance of the mild 
conditions offered by their conqueror. 

The fratricidal war which immediately preceded 
the Spanish conquest was a great calamity ; and it has 
been assumed that it would have led to the disruption 
of the Inca empire, even if the Spaniards had not 
arrived. But this may well be doubted. It is true 
that a civil war of this kind is not recorded as having 
previously occured in Inca histor}'. There had been 
depositions, and changes of succession, as in the case 
of Urco and Pachacutec ; but such changes were effected 
by the resolution of princes and councillors, without 
resort to force. The war between Huascar and Atahu- 
alpa was very different. It has all the aspects of a 



62 A HISTORY OF PERU 

rebellion against the legitimate sovereign, sustained by 
alien tribes recently subdued, and opposed by the rul- 
ing class. Still the leader of the rebellion was a brother 
of the sovereign, and when his attempt was crowned 
with success, all his sympathies would point to the 
restoration and maintenance of the old order of things, 
thus identifying his own interests with the continu- 
ance of the empire. Moreover the habits and feelings 
of the people were so closely entwined with the Incarial 
system of government that the new sovereign could not 
have separated them even if he had the will. We have 
the evidence of Spaniards, as has already been men- 
tioned, that the administrative system continued to 
work almost automatically, after the central govern- 
ment had ceased to exist. 

The empire which the Spaniards found had, there- 
fore, all the elements of permanence in spite of the 
accident, so fortunate for the invaders, that they ar- 
rived just at the conclusion of an exhausting inter- 
necine war, when the government was momentaril}^ 
out of gear. The Incas, with all the advantages of 
climate and varied soils and aspects, seem to have 
attained to the highest grade of civilization of which 
the Amerian race is capable. This success was due to 
the region in which their lot was cast, which gave a 
rich return to industry, provided that the utmost skill 
and the most constant labor was devoted to the task. 
The exercise of those faculties developed the mental 
and physical powers of the race in the highest degree. 

The Quichua speaking Peruvians averaged a height of 
five feet four inches, and were strongly built. The 
nose is invariably aquiline, the mouth rather large, 
the eyes small and black or deep brown, bright and 
generally deep set, with long fine lashes. The hair 



INCA EMPIRE 63 

of a deep black brown, is ver}^ abundant and long, in 
men as well as women. The skin is very smooth and 
soft, of a light coppery brown color, sufficiently light 
to show a blush of health on the cheeks. The neck is 
thick, and the shoulders broad, with great depth of 
chest. The legs are well formed and the feet very small. 
The women, w^hen young, have graceful figures and are 
often pretty. The CoUas, of the Titicaca basin, are 
remarkable for great length of body as compared with 
the thigh and leg; and the}^ are the only people whose 
thighs are shorter than their legs. The Peruvians are 
wonderful pedestrians and are possessed of great pow- 
ers of endurance. They now usually have a melan- 
choly expression, and are lovers of solitude. But this 
was probably not the case in the times before the Span- 
ish conquest. We only know the Inca nobles in the 
da5^s of their greatness, from contemporary pictures. 
They are represented as taller and fairer than the rest 
of the people, with more refined features and a more 
commanding air. Their princesses were very beauti- 
ful and, like the male members of their family, an air 
of culture and refinement had been impressed on their 
features ; which was due to man}^ generations of selec- 
tion and training. 

The Inca system favored a rapid increase in the pop- 
ulation. It became necessary to utilize every rood of 
cultivable ground, and the mountains were lined with 
ande7ieria or terraces filled with earth, to extend the 
area of the crops. Judging from the number of these ter- 
races, now for the most part abandoned, and from oth- 
er vestiges of settlement in places now waste through- 
out the country, it is calculated that the population of 
Peru, in the time of the Incas, exceeded ten millions 
of happy and contented people. 



64 A HISTORY OF PERU 

This was the inheritance of the Spaniards They 
became possessed of a magnificent empire, densely 
populated by a docile, intelligent and industrious race, 
endowed with all the richest gifts of nature lavishly 
and bounteously bestowed, and already blessed with 
an excellent administrative system far superior to their 
own, which was in admirable working order. We now 
have to see what account can be given of their steward ■ 
ship. 



CHAPTER III 

CONQUEST OF PERU 

Spain was the nation of Europe which was destined 
to reap the first fruits of the discovery of America. A 
crusading war of seven hundred years duration, for 
the recovery of their country from the Moors, had led 
the Spaniards from victor}^ to victory, until the cross 
was planted on the towers of the Alhambra. The sep- 
arate kingjdoms which had been carved out of provinces 
won from the Moors were united in one kingdom by 
the heirs of Ferdinand and Isabella. The long contest 
had welded the Spanish nation into a nation of hardy- 
warriors, so that, in the war against the French in Italy, 
the Spanish infantry was found to be the best in the 
world. Letters and arts were not neglected by the 
soldiers of Castile; the best romance and the best his- 
tory in the language were written by men who had 
adopted the career of arms. The hardiest sailors of 
the early part of the i6th century issued from the 
Basque ports along the north coast oi Spain, Barcelona 
was renowned for her pilots and cartographers, while 
the most scientific navigators of that age sailed from 
the ports of Andalusia. 

At that particular juncture in their history the coun- 

- 5 ' 65 



66 A HISTORY OF PERU 

trymen of the Cid and of the Great Captain were, of all 
the nations of Europe, the best fitted to achieve 
great and heroic deeds. It was their destiny to be 
foremost in the occupation of the New World and to 
leave their mark on it forever. Thus it was that, for 
good or for evil, the history of Peru became closely 
connected with Spain, and when the connection was 
finally severed, Peru was a mixed nation, including 
Spanish and native elements. The process which re- 
sulted in this change is the history of the Spanish 
conquest and of Spanish colonial rule. 

Spain is a nation of several races differing widely 
from each other both in physical and mental qualities. 
In the northern provinces the fair and robust Visigoths 
of Asturias and Galicia, and the hardy Basques and 
Navarrese were closely allied with the people of north- 
ern Europe; while the Catalonians and Valencians be- 
longed to the romance nationalities of the south. The 
stately Castilian, with much Gothic blood in his veins, 
represents the Romanized Iberians of the Empire, and 
the Arab element enters- largely into the people of the 
sunny south, the lithe and mercurial Murcian, and the 
quick tempered and vivacious Andalusian. In the 
provinces which were along the marches between Chris- 
tian and Moor, such as La Mancha and Estremadura 
some mixture of races had produced men who com- 
bind with the proud valor and tenacity of the north, 
much of Andalusian quickness and vivacity. Many 
of the most prominent among the early Spanish con- 
querors were natives of Estremadura. But adventurers 
from all these provinces flocked to the new world ; and 
a Basque or Galician was, in all respects, as different 
from an Andalusian, as a German is from a Frenchman. 
The Spaniards, in Peru, must not be looked upon as 




Francisco Pizarro. 



CONQUEST OF PERU 67 

men who all had the same national characteristics. 
United in religion and generally in allegiance, the ra- 
cial origin of the settlers, in most instances, had a 
marked and permanent influence on the conduct and 
lives both of themselves and their descendants. 

The sons of Estremadura inherited the good and 
evil qualities of borderers, whose ancestors belonged to 
both the great nationalities who struggled for pre- 
eminence on Spanish soil during seven centuries. Fran- 
cisco Pizarro was a son of Estremadura, born out of 
wedlock, and both he and his father Gonzalo had 
fought in the ranks of the renowned Spanish infantry 
under the Great Captain. Francisco had reached mid- 
dle life when he embarked, as a man at arms, for the 
new world. His education had been entirely neglected. 

Born in the town of Truxillo, his mother Francisco 
Gonzalez was a poor woman who was glad of the few 
small coins that her little son could earn by tending 
pigs. His after life was passed in camps, and the 
high qualities he undoubtedly possessed were the out- 
come of his own individuality. He must have been 
between thirty and forty years of age when he em- 
barked with Alonzo de Ojeda in 1509, and arrived at 
Darien. He secured the confidence of the leaders under 
whom he served, and his fellow soldiers relied upon 
his judgment and fertility of resource in every dillfi- 
culty. They preferred to march under his orders, and, 
on more then one occasion, they chose him as their 
captain in a moment of supreme difficulty. Eventually 
he became a citizen of the new city of Panama, found- 
ed by Pedrarias in 1519, and received a small grant of 
land. 

In the year 1522 Pascual de Andagoya, a cavalier of 
good family, who had come out to Darien in 1514, and 



68 A HISTORY OF PERU 

had been appointed Inspector General of the natives on 
the Isthmus, undertook a voyage along the coast to a 
part called Viru, whence he received tidings respecting 
the empire of the Incas. He returned to Panama to 
report what he had heard, but was unable to undertake 
an expedition in person, owing to a protracted illness. 
At the request of the Governor of Panama, he handed 
over the enterprise to three partners who formed a 
company. Francisco Pizarro was to command the ex- 
pedition. His comrade Diego Almagro, who was some- 
what older, was to bring supplies. A clergyman at 
Panama named Luque, who also held valuable prop- 
erty on the island of Taboga, was to act as agent and 
raise the funds. 

A small vessel built by Vasco Nunez de Balboa to 
navigate the South Sea, which he had discovered in 
1513, was lying dismantled at Panama. This was pur- 
chased by the partners, and about eighty recruits were 
collected. The adventurers were embarked with an 
inadequate supply of provisions, and Pizarro was ready 
to sail by the middle of November, 1524. The little 
colony was much excited at the magnanimous resolution 
of the men who had entered upon this desperate enter- 
prise ; and all the settlers assembled when Luque di- 
vided the Host with his two partners ; and bade Pizarro 
farewell. Departing on the 14th of November the ex- 
plorer sailed beyond the point on the coast reached b;y 
Andagoya but, after suffering terrible hardships, he 
was obliged to return for want of provisions. Almagro 
had followed, but arrived too late, and after an en- 
counter with the natives in which he lost an eye, he 
too returned. This failure made it difficult to raise 
funds for a second expedition, although Pizarro had 
lost none of his own energy and confidence. Fortun- 



CONQUEST OF PERU 69 

ately a wealthy and important official at Panama was 
impressed with the hopefulness of the undertaking. He 
was willing to advance funds, but he had reasons for 
wishing to conceal the part he was taking. This was 
Gaspar de Espinosa, the Alcade Mayor of Panama. He 
made the advances through Luque, and an agreement 
was signed, providing for the division of territory and 
spoil between the partners, on the loth of March, 1526. 
A second expedition was then fitted out. There were 
only fifty survivors from the first voyage. The rest had 
succumbed to hardships and disease. To these were 
added one hundred and ten new recruits : and two ves- 
sels were equipped, commanded by Pizarro and Alma 
gro respectively, with Bartolome Ruiz, a very able and 
experienced sailor of Moguer, as pilot. They pro- 
ceeded to the mouth of a river which had been named 
San Juan, which is not quite half way between Panama 
and the equator. Here Pizarro landed with his troops, 
Almagro returned to Panama for supplies, and Ruiz 
proceeded southward on a voyage of discovery. With 
a favorable wind the expert sailor doubled Cape Pa- 
sado and was the first European to cross the line on 
the Pacific Ocean. He was examining the coast, 
which appeared to be inhabited and cultivated, when, 
to his great surprise, he sighted a strange sail. It was 
a Peruvian raft propelled by a sail, with a crew of 
twelve men, including two natives of Tumbez ; and 
they were on their way to exchange various articles for 
the products of tribes further north. Ruiz beheld, 
among the merchandise, balances for weighing gold 
and silver, cotton and woolen cloths dyed with vari- 
ous colors in tasteful patterns, silver work, metal mir- 
rors and vases. These people gave him information 
respecting Cuzco and the empire of the Incas, the port 



70 . A HISTORY OF PERU 

of Tumbez, and the direction of the Peruvian coast. 

Ruiz returned with these tidings to the river San 
Juan, while Almagro, having obtained recruits and 
provisions from Pedro de los Rios, the new governor 
of Panama, also rejoined Pizarro. The adventurers 
then shaped a course to the south, under the guidance 
of the pilot Ruiz, and reached the coast of Atacames, 
a province which had been annexed to the Inca empire 
by Tupac Yupanqui. It was evident that their small 
force was unable to cope with the armies of the great 
civilized empire of which they had heard. But there 
was a violent quarrel between Pizarro and Almagro 
respecting the course that should be pursued, and the 
two old comrades were never again really friends. It 
was finally arranged that Pizarro and his troops should 
remain on the island of Gallo which had been discov- 
ered by Ruiz in i° 57' N., while Almagro once more 
went back to Panama for recruits. 

The sufferings and privations were more than the 
men could endure. The great majority were discon- 
tented at being left behind to starve; and pains were 
therefore taken to prevent the men from sending mes- 
sages to friends in Panama. One man named Saravia 
was too cunning for his superiors. On pretence of 
sending a large ball of cotton as a present to the gov- 
ernor's wife, he put in the centre a note signed by 
himself and several others, in which he prayed for de 
livery from a forced and hazardous service, in the fol- 
lowing expressive verse : — 

"Lord governor all hail! 

Watch narrowly their ways 
For thither the recruiter '11 sail 
While here the butcher stays."* 

*"Pues senorgobernador 
Mirelo bien por entero, 
Que alia va el recogedor 
Y aca queda el carnicero. 



CONQUEST OF PERU 71 

The letter of Saravia reached its destination. The 
complaint was amplified by a man named Lobato,who 
had returned with Almagro, and the miserable condi- 
tion of the crew corroborated his story. The governor 
was indignant. He refused to listen to Almagro or 
Luque, and despatched a vessel commanded by an 
officer of his own named Tafur, to bring back the mal- 
contents. 

Meanwhile the people on the island of Gallo, under 
Pizarro, were suffering great hardships. It rained in- 
cessantly, there was no respite from the attacks of 
mosquitoes, and their clothes were in rags. When Ta- 
fur arrived the majority clamored to be taken on board. 
The governor's orders were that if Pizarro obstinately 
refused to return, all his followers who wished to de- 
sert him might go back to Panama; while those who 
were faithful to him were at liberty to remain. 

When Pizarro saw his men electing to return, he 
drew a line on the sand with his sword, and thus ad- 
dressed them. "Gentlemen! This line signifies labor, 
hunger, thirst, fatigue, wounds, sickness and every other 
kind of danger that must be encountered in this con- 
quest until life is ended. Let those who have the 
courage to meet and overcome the dangers of this he- 
roic achievement cross the line in token of their reso- 
lution and as a testimony that they will be my faithful 
companions. And let those who feel unworthy of such 
daring return to Panama, for I do not wish to put 
force upon any man. I trust in God that, for his 
greater honor and glory, his eternal Majesty will help 
those who remain with me, though they be few, and 
that we shall not feel the want of those who forsake 
us." On hearing this speech the Spaniards began to 
go on board with all speed, lest anything should hap- 



72 A HISTORY OF PERU 

pen to detain them. A mere handful crossed the line. 
The forlorn hope was led by the stout old sailor Bar- 
tolome Ruiz, who gave courage to the rest. He was 
followed by a Greek adventurer of great strength and 
bravery named Pedro de Candia who played a prominent 
part in the future history of the conquest. Next came 
Cristoval de Peralta of Baeza, one of the first citizens 
of the future city of Lima; and Alonzo Briceno of 
Benavente. The fifth hero was the treasurer Nicolas de 
Ribera, destined to pass unhurt through all the dan- 
gers of the conquest and to leave descendents in Peru. 
The fierce and cruel Juan de la Torre met a very differ- 
ent fate, as did Alonzo de Molina, and the amorous 
Pedro Alcon. Francisco de Cuellar, Domingo de So- 
ria Luce, a Basque of San Sebastian, Martin de Paz, 
who was never destined to leave the island, and Anton 
de Carrion then stepped across, and the number of 
thirteen was made up by Garcia de Jaren who wrote an 
account of the memorable event at Panama on August 
3rd, 1529, and thus became its historian. One autho- 
rity raises the number to' sixteen. 

Tafur sailed away, leaving the heroic adventurers to 
their fate. Gallo was not considered safe, as that 
island was close to the mainland, and the little band 
might be overwhelmed by an attack from the natives at 
any moment. Pizarro, therefore, refnoved his camp to 
an island further to seaward, and about twenty leagues 
to the north, which he named Gorgona from the numer- 
ous springs. Huts were built, supplies of maize were 
procured, and food was also obtained from the yields of 
hunting and fishing. After five long months their 
anxiety was turned to joy when a white sail was de- 
scried on the horizon. 

At first the governor of Panama was so enraged 



CONQUEST OF PERU 73 

against Pizarro that he refused to allow any help to 
be sent. The adventurer was to perish in his mad ob- 
stinacy. The prayers and entreaties of Luque and Al- 
magro were disregarded. At length, however, the 
governor allowed a small vessel to put to sea with 
provisions, from fear that his conduct might be disap- 
proved at home. Pizarro resolved to coutinue his dis- 
coveries in this wretched little craft, with the pilot 
Ruiz as his guide. Martin de Paz, who was very ill, 
was left at Gorgona with the heavy baggage and stores, 
and the rest embarked. A southerly course was shaped, 
and in twenty days Pizarro entered the bay of Gua3^a- 
quil; and anchored off a small island which he named 
Santa Clara. It is now better known as El Muerto 
from a fancied resemblance in its outlines to a dead 
body. He went thence to Tumbez. 

The arrival of the ominous little vessel in the river 
of Tumbez was a memorable event for Peru. The 
place appeared like paradise to the weary sojourners 
at Gorgona. Green cultivated fields lined the river 
bank, well built houses were dotted here and there, 
and the hospitable people sent off live stock and other 
provisions to the mysterious strangers. An Inca no- 
ble, desirous of sending an exact report to his sover- 
eign, came on board and astonished the Spaniards at 
his intelligence and the sagacity of his questions. One 
or two of the men who had been met at sea by Ruiz 
in the previous year, and had remained with him, acted 
as interpreters. Alonzo de Molina landed with the 
Inca noble, and returned with such a glowing account 
of all he had seen, that Pizarro despatched his Grecian 
officer Pedro de Candia to give him a more rational 
report. He was conducted to the house of the Curaca 
where he astonished and terrified the natives by dis- 



74 



A HISTORY OF PERU 



charging his arquebus. But he was surprised in nis 
turn at the order that prevailed, at the signs of prosper- 
ity, and at the quantity of gold and silver which orna- 
mented the temple. His report was fully as enthusi- 
astic as that of Molina. Pizarro was delighted with 
this confirmation of his wildest hopes, and he contin- 
ued the exploration of the coast of Peru as far south as 
Santa. At the few places where the Spaniards landed, 
including probably Sechura and Lambayeque, they were 
welcomed with the greatest kindness and hospitalit}^ 

Alcon was an impressionable young sailor, and he 
entreated to be allowed to remain with the fair daugh- 
ters of Lambayeque. He became so violent when his 
request was refused, that it was necessary to knock 
him down with an oar and put him in irons between 
decks. Returning to Tumbez, Pizarro allowed Alonzo 
de Molina to remain there, and took on board two 
lads, named Filipillo and Martinillo, to learn the Span- 
ish language and act as interpreters. He then made 
sail for Panama and arrived there after an absence of 
three years, full of ambitious aspirations, and firmly 
resolved to conquer the great empire respecting which 
he nov/ had definite information. 

The man who had been blamed and abused for his 
barbarous obstinacy, was now lauded to the skies for 
his heroic endurance and resolution. 

After much deliberation the three partners resolved 
that Pizarro himself should proceed to Spain, to peti- 
tion for a concession of the conquest and for favors to 
be bestowed on himself and his comrades. Accordingly 
he set out from Panama in the spring of 1528, ac- 
companied by Pedro de Candia, and taking with him 
the young natives and a few tilings he had collected at 
Tumbez. Pizarro arrived at Toledo and was received 



CONQUEST OF PERU 75 

in audience by the Emperor Charles V. He was a 
man of noble presence and prudent speech, and in 
recalling his great deeds and describing his expecta- 
tions with enthusiasm, he became eloquent. His mar- 
velous constancy excited the admiration of his hearers, 
and when Charles set out for Italy he left orders that 
the project of Pizarro should be favorabl}^ entertained. 
There were several weary months of dela}^, but on the 
26th of Jul}', 1529, Juana, the Queen Mother, granted 
the desired concession. Pizarro was authorized to 
conquer and settle the province of Peru for the crown 
of Castile with a force of not less than two hundred 
and fifty men. Fie was to be accompanied by royal 
officers and by ecclesiastics to convert the natives, and 
he received a grant of mone}^ to purchase arms and 
other necessaries. A fifth of all gold was to belong 
to the crown. Pizarro himself was appointed Adelan 
tado or governor, and was decorated with the order of 
Santiago. His gallant followers who crossed the line 
at Gorgona were created gentlemen of coat armor. 
Ruiz was nominated grand pilot of the South Sea with a 
suitable salary. Pedro de Candia was made Captain 
of the artillery, Almagro received the title of Marshal 
and the little son by an Indian girl named Ana Mar- 
tinez, whom he loved dearly, was declared legitimate. 
Luque was to be Bishop of Tumbez. Pizarro was 
granted the right to bear his paternal coat of arms, not- 
withstanding his illegitimac}^ with augmentations re- 
ferring to his services. 

When all these weight}^ matters had been settled, 
Pizarro visited his old home at Truxillo in Estrema- 
dura. His four brothers gladly entered his service. 
Hernando, the eldest, was the only legitimate son of 
their father. Juan and Gonzalo were own brothers of 



76 A HISTORY OF PERU 

the conqueror. Francisco Martin de Alcantara was his 
half-brother, on the mother's side. Pizarro received 
much generous aid from his relation Hernando Cortez, 
the conqueror of Mexico, who speciall}^ assisted him 
in obtaining recruits. At length the expedition sailed 
from San Lucar on the igth of Januar}^, 1530, arriving 
safely at the isthmus, where immediate preparations 
were made to resume the voyage on the Pacific side. 
It was arranged that Almagro should remain at Pana- 
ma, to follow with reinforcements that were expected 
from Nicaragua, and that Pizarro should lead the expe- 
dition with one hundred and eighty- five men and 
twenty-seven horses in three ships. The banners of 
the expedition were blessed in the church of La Mer- 
ced at Panama, a sermon was preached by a Dominican 
monk named Vargas, all the adventurers received the 
sacrament, and at length the expedition sailed in the 
beginning of Januar}^, 1531. The priest Hernando 
Luque died a few months afterward, and before the 
departure of Almagro. 

After thirteen days the wind and current brought the 
expedition into the bay of San Mateo. This part of 
the coast, in about 1° N. latitude, lies east of the river 
Esmeraldas, the mouth of which is thirty leagues from 
Quito over a most difficult mountainous road. Here 
Pizarro resolved to land the greater part of his troops, 
and to march by the sea coast, while the vessels kept 
company on a parallel course. A large store of gold 
and emeralds was found among the Coaque Indians, 
and one of the vessels was despatched with it to Pana- 
ma as a foretaste of what might be expected hereafter. 
A chief near Cape Pasado, twenty-eight miles south of 
the equator, gave Pizarro an emerald the size of a 
pigeon's egg. A little further south is the river Santr- 



CONQUEST OF PERU 77 

ago, where Puerto Viejo was afterward founded ; in 
1° 2' S. Here many of the adventurers wished to 
found a colony, but Pizarro preferred to push on to 
the island of Puna in the gulf of Guayaquil, about 
eighty miles further south. It was known that the 
islanders had a deadly feud with the people of Tumbez 
and it was resolved to reduce them to submission if 
any hostility was shown. The Spaniards were con- 
veyed from the mainland in their vessels, and in native 
balsas. Zarate describes them as rafts made of long 
light poles fastened across two more solid poles, with 
a sort of deck built above them to prevent the crew 
from getting wet. Some of these balsas would carry 
fifty men, and they were propelled by sails and pad- 
dles. Pizarro was well received by the people of Puna 
at first, but afterward there was some very desperate 
fighting and great slaughter was committed on the 
islanders. During the stay of the expedition at Puna, 
two vessels arrived with a welcome reinforcement of 
men and horses under the command of a cavalier of 
Estremadura of great distinction named Hernando de 
Soto. There were now three vessels, so Pizarro em- 
barked the whole of his force and landed it on the 
mainland at Tumbez. Great surprise was felt at find- 
ing the town, where the Spaniads had been so hospi- 
tably received during the former voyage, in ruins, and 
the people hostile. But this is probably to be account- 
ed for by an incursion of the islanders of Puna who 
had driven away the people of Tumbez, destroyed their 
town, and who were in fact the enemies encountered 
by Pizarro. Leaving a small garrison at Tumbez un- 
der the accountant Antonio Navarro and Alonzo Riqu- 
elme, the rest of the expedition was led across the 
great desert to the fertile valley of the river Chira, 



78 A HISTORY OF PERU 

near Payta, where the first Spanish town was founded 
at a place called Tangarara, and named San Miguel. 
The site was afterward removed to Piura. Navarro 
and Riquelme were sent for from Tumbez, and re- 
mained in charge of the new city. Tidings were here 
received of the political state of the country, and that 
the victorious xA.tahualpa was encamped in the moun- 
tains near Caxamarca with a large army. 

Pizarro went straight to the point of danger. This 
was the secret of his wonderful success. When he 
heard that Atahualpa was in the neighboring moun- 
tains with aconsiderble force, he at once resolved to go 
in search of him. He left San Miguel on the 24th of 
September, 1532, and encamped in the valley of the 
Piura where he mustered his force, and found it to 
consist of one hundred and two foot soldiers, sixty-two 
horses, and two small falconets in charge of Pedro de 
Candia. About fifty-five settlers remained at San Mi- 
guel. From Piura a detachment under Hernando de 
Soto was sent across the Andes to Caxas and Huanca- 
bamba, and returned with much useful topographical 
information. Pizarro then led his little force across 
the vast desert of Sechura to the fertile valley of Motupe 
where he had a friendly reception from the people, as 
well as in the neighboring valley of Leche or Lambay- 
eque. He continued the chiefs in possession of their 
rights, and they received baptism ; and it was in these 
coast valleys that an envoy arrived from Atahualpa, no 
less a person indeed than his own brother Titu Aiauchi. 
He brought a friendly message, and numerous pres- 
ents, being dismissed with the assurance that Pizarro 
intended to march onv/ard and visit his lord at Caxa- 
marca without any delay. 

The last encampment of the Spaniards on the coast 



CONQUEST OF PERU 79 

was at a place called La Ramada by Hernando Pizarro, 
in the valley of the Jequetepeque or Pacasmayu. 
From this point Pizarro commenced the ascent, arriv- 
ing at Caxamarca on Friday, the i_5th of November, 
1532. He found an open space in the middle of the 
town, surrounded by walls and masonry buildings of 
great solidity. The valley is of an oval shape with a 
small river flowing through it, and was covered with cul- 
tivated fields and gardens, traversed by avenues of wil- 
lows, large flowering daturas, mimosas, and the beauti- 
ful quenuar trees. A message arrived from Atahualpa 
with permission for Pizarro to make use of the build- 
ings, which served as excellent quarters for his people. 
Meanwhile Hernando Pizarro and de Soto had been to 
the camp of Atahualpa, and were informed that he 
would visit the governor in person on the following 
day. 

In expectation of the visit Pizarro ordered all the 
Spaniards to be fully armed, but to keep themselves 
out of sight ; and Pedro de Candia was to have his fal- 
conets pointed. The audacious plan had been formed 
of seizing the person of the Peruvian sovereign, and of 
committing such a slaughter among his followers as to 
strike terror into the hearts of the survivors. Pizarro 
calculated that the possession with him of their vener- 
ated sovereign would not only prevent them from 
making any attack, but that the orders which he would 
be able to force Atahualpa to issue, would be obeyed. 
The risk was enormous, but Pizarro felt that it must 
be taken in order to secure the grand results of the 
conquest, and that in no other way could there be 
safety for his little band surrounded by tens of thous- 
ands of enemies. 

In the morning of the i6th of November the vast 



8o A HISTORY OF PERU 

army of Atahualpa began to file out of the camp under 
the command of Rumi liaui. First came the sling- 
men, followed by troops with copper headed clubs, 
and lances. Many wore helmets surmounted by plumes 
of feathers and rich mantles. The march took so long 
that it was near sunset before the bearers of the litter 
of Atahualpa began to enter the square of Caxamarca. 
He left his armed soldiers outside, only taking with 
him his chiefs and attendants. The sovereign was 
raised high above the people when the friar Vicente 
de Valverde advanced with a cross in one hand and a 
bible in the other. The arrogant speech of the fanatic 
must have been converted into absolute nonsense by 
the interpreter Filipillo. The book which had been 
presented to Atahualpa was thrown to the ground, with 
a haughty gesture. Then Valverde shouted for ven- 
geance, crying, "Fallon — I absolve you." "The rascally 
friar was certainly a peace breaker," remarked one of 
the conquerors. At a signal from Pizarro the falco- 
nets were discharged by Pedro de Candia, the cry of 
"Santiago" was raised and a hideous butchery followed. 
The Curacas stood bravely around their sovereign. 
It was certain death, but not one deserted his post. At 
length Atahualpa was dragged from his litter by Pizar- 
ro himself, who received a knife wound in protecting 
his prisoner. He was the only Spaniard wounded. 
Not one was killed. The unarmed Indians fell by 
thousands and the carnage only ceased with the ap- 
proach of night. Rumi-naui escaped with the rem- 
nant of the army to Quito. Next day the imperial 
camp was sacked by the Spanish cavalry, and the spoils 
were brought into Caxamarca. 

At first Atahualpa was treated courteously, his women 
and servants were allowed to attend him, and he suf- 



CONQUEST OF PERU 8i 

fered no more restraint than was necessary for his safe 
keeping. He had many conversations with Pizarro 
and other Spaniards who were surprised at his wit and 
intelligence. But when the story of the civil war be- 
came better known to Pizarro, and he began to hint 
at arbitration between Atahualpa and his brother, the 
usurper became alarmed. Huascar, with his mother 
and most of his chief councillors, was being brought as 
a prisoner from Cuzco ; and there can be little doubt 
that Atahualpa secretly sent orders for his death. He, 
and all his relations who accompanied him, were mas- 
sacred at a halting place called Andamarca as soon as 
the order was received ; and when the tidings reached 
Caxamarca Pizarro was so much incensed that Ata- 
hualpa pretended that the deed was perpetrated with- 
out his knowledge. For this crime alone the fratricide 
richly deserved the fate that awaited him. 

Seeing the Spanish thirst for gold, Atahualpa said 
to his captors one day — "If 3^ou will liberate me I will 
fill this room with gold to the height I can reach with 
my hand. " The ransom was formally agreed to and 
the contract was drawn up by a notary. The space to 
be filled was probably twenty-two feet long \)y sixteen 
wide, and nine feet high. Orders were sent out to bring 
the treasure from all parts of the empire, and soon it 
began to arrive, but slowly. It was thought necessary to 
send out expeditions to report upon the riches of the 
countr}^, and while Hernando Pizarro made an adven- 
turous journey to Pachecamac on the coast to investi- 
gate the reports concerning its wealth, Hernando de 
Soto and Pedro del Barco proceeded to the capital 
itself. It was on this journey that de Soto made the 
acquaintance of Ccuri-coyllur and her lover, in pass- 

6 



82 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ing though Xauxa. The main object of these expedi- 
tions was to expedite the arrival of the treasure. 

Almagro at length appeared on the coast with three 
ships and a reinforcement of one hundred and fifty 
men, and on the 14th of April, 1533, he reached Caxa- 
marca. Hernando Pizarro and de Soto returned in 
May, and in the following days the gold from Cuzco, 
consisting of plates taken from the walls of the temples, 
began to come in. The total amounted to 326,539/<?j-(?j- 
of gold and 51,610 marcs of silver. After deducting 
the royal fifth, the rest was divided among the con- 
querors. This, converted into money, was 4,605,670 
ducats or $17,500,000 of our mone}'. At this time 
rumors arrived to the effect that large bodies of troops 
were approaching from the direction of Quito, A most 
vigilant lookout was kept, and Pizarro began to sus- 
pect that these movements were secretly ordered by 
his prisoner. Hernando Pizarro had been sent to 
Spain with the royal fifth, and to make a report of the 
conquest and discover}^ to the emperor. His brother 
felt the loss of his advice.- Atahualpa had become a 
serious embarrassment. It required the whole Spanish 
force to guard his person securely, while the danger of 
his escape was a constant and serious source of anxiety. 
Thus the operations for completing the conquest were 
at a stand-still. Though Atahualpa was treacherously 
captured, and frequently assured that his life was safe, 
his gaoler still began to feel that good faith and honor 
would have to be sacrificed on the alter of expediency. 
Hernando de Soto would not listen to these sugges- 
tions. He offered to proceed to Huamachuco, where 
the native army was reported to have assembled, and 
to ascertain the truth or falsehood of the rumor. On 
the departure of de Soto and his followers, Atahualpa 




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CONQUEST OF PERU 83 

was at the mercy of those who were urging Pizarro to 
put him to death. Pizarro yielded and it was thought 
advisable to go through the farce of a formal trial. 
The chief charges againstAtahualpa were the murder of 
his brother, and that he was fomenting a rising against 
the Spaniards. About fifty honorable cavaliers pro- 
tested, but the "rascally friar" Valverde declared that 
the sentence of death was just and that he was willing 
to sign it. This appeased the conscience of many who 
hesitated ; and the dishonorable crime was consum- 
mated. Nine months after his capture, and seventy- 
three days after the distribution of the ransom, Ata- 
hualpa was strangled in the square of Caxamarca on 
the 29th of August, 1533. A few days after Hernando 
de Soto returned, having satisfied himself that the 
rumors of a rising were false. He upbraided Pizarro 
for the murder, who threw the blame on Valverde, 
but the monk basely disclaimed any responsibility. 
The honorable cavaliers who protested against the 
murder of Atahualpa are as well deserving of remem- 
brance as those who crossed the line at Gorgona. 
They were 



Hernando de Soto, 
Francisco de Chaves. 
Diego de Chaves. 
Francisco de Fuentes, 
Pedro de Ayala. 
Diego de Moro. 



Francisco Moscoso. 
Hernando de Haro. 
Pedro de Mendoza. 
Juan de Herrada, 
Alonzo de Avila. 
Bias de Atienza. 



The conqueror was now free to advance into the 
country and occupy the capital. It is true that there 
were still difficulties in the way. The victorious ar- 
mies of Atahualpa, which had overwhelmed the Cuzco 
sovereignty, were still in the field. Chalcuchima had 
come to Caxamarca at the call of Atahualpa and was 
in Pizarro's power. But Quizquiz occupied Cuzco 



84 A HISTORY OF PERU 

and the intervening country, while Rumi-fiaiii and the 
murdered prince's brother Titu Atauchi were at Quito, 
in the Spanish rear. Pizarro was thus threatened both 
in front and rear, by overwhelming forces. Never- 
theless he resolved to undertake the march to Cuzco. 
He selected a young brother of Atahualpa named Tu- 
pac as his successor, made him swear allegiance to the 
Spanish crown, and anticipated that this recognition 
would ensure the obedience of the armies in the field. 
But the boy's death, a few weeks afterward, put an end 
to all hope of profit from this measure. Chalcuchima 
accompanied the Spaniards as a prisoner. The other 
generals of the murdered prince were actively hostile. 
The admirably constructed Inca road facilitated the 
march of the invaders, over the wild and mountainous 
country; but their rear was harassed by a native army 
led by Titu Atauchi, the brother of Atahualpa, who 
had been sent as an envoy to Pizarro when he was in 
the coast valleys. At Tocto, in the province of Huayl- 
las, he made a sudden attack and captured eight Span- 
iards. Among these were Sancho de Cuellar who drew 
up the indictment against Atahualpa at the mock trial, 
and Francisco de Chaves who protested against the 
execution. Chaves was treated with the greatest kind- 
ness, and speedily liberated. But Cuellar was pub- 
licly executed in the great square of Caxamarca after 
the place had been evacuated by the Spaniards, at the 
very same pole against which Atahualpa had been 
strangled. Titu Atauchi, who was a brave and gener- 
ous prince, died very soon after ordering this act of 
retributive justice. 

Pizarro met with a slight show of resistance from 
the Huancas and Yauyos, but they fled with terror at 
the sight of the horses, and the Spaniards entered 



CONQUEST OF PERU 85 

the valley of Xauxa. Here the conqueror resolved to 
establish a second base of operations, the first being 
at San Miguel on the coast. The mountain valley was 
as beautiful as it was salubrious, while the distance 
to the coast could not be very great. A city was found- 
ed at Xauxa, and Riquelma the treasurer was left 
there, in charge of the heav}^ baggage and specie. 
Between this place and Cuzco the indefatigable Quiz- 
quiz had broken down the bridges, thrown up obsta- 
cles, and carefully prepared for a prolonged resistance. 
It was suspecte<l that these steps were taken in con- 
cert with the prisoner Chalcuchima. Hernando de Soto 
led the vanguard with sixty horses and the Marshal 
Almagro followed with the rest of the cavalry in sup- 
port. The first skirmish with the enemy was near 
Villcas, where several Spaniards were slain. Soto then 
pushed forward, and late one afternoon he entered the 
defile of Vilcacunca near Cuzco, with the object of 
passing through it before nightfall. Suddenly he was 
attacked by a large force of natives, who showered 
stones and arrows on the advancing invaders, and 
threw aillos (bolas) at the legs of the horses. They 
then came to close quarters, and fought with great 
valor and determination. The Spaniards fell back, 
but Soto animated them by his example, and shouting 
'Seguidme, " plunged into the thick of the foe ; and the 
struggle was continued on both sides, with desperate 
tenacity, until nightfall Five Spaniards and two 
horses were killed, eleven men and fourteen horses 
wounded. The Peruvians were confident of victory 
at the break of dawn, and the position of Soto seemed 
desperate. The sound of a trumpet broke the stillness 
of night and gave fresh hope to the Spaniards. Alma- 
gro had come up by forced marches, and this oppor- 



86 A HI ST OR Y OF PER U 

tune reinforcement enabled the invaders to disperse 
the gallant defenders of their country. The victor}^ of 
Vilcacunca was fatal to the hopes of Quizquiz. His 
troops were broken and lost all confidence, feeling 
that resistance to men with such advantages would be 
unavailing. The whole Spanish force crossed the 
Apurimac without molestation, and encamped on the 
plain of Sacsahuana. 

In consequence of this obstinate resistance on the 
part of the generals of Atahualpa, Pizarro resolved to 
form an alliance with the part}^ of Huascar. He in- 
augurated his new policy by executing his prisoner 
Chalcuchima, and as the brave old soldier refused to 
change hisreligion, he was burned to death at the request 
of the friar Valverde. 

Manco Inca, the next legitimate brother of Huascar, 
was his successor. When the news reached him of 
the execution of Chalcuchima, he resolved to place 
himself under the protection of Pizarro. He presented 
himself at the camp of Sacsahuana, attended by a nu- 
merous retinue, including all the surviving Incas of 
Cuzco ; assuring the conqueror that the whole empire 
would declare for him, as soon as Quizquiz was de- 
feated, and that he would receive the Spaniards as 
friends and deliverers. Overjoyed at this auspicious 
event, Pizarro received his guest with every mark of 
honor and respect, declaring that the sole object of his 
march to Caxamarca was to crush the enemies of Hu- 
ascar, and that Atahualpa was executed to avenge the 
death of the rightful Inca. Astute diplomacy was 
necessary to secure his ends, and seems to have come 
as natural to this extraordinary man when the occasion 
required it, as the obstinate tenacity of purpose and 



CONQUEST OF PERU 87 

audacious valor which marked the earlier part of his 
career. 

After a brief skirmish Quizquiz fled, and the road 
to the capital was open. On the 15th of November, 
the anniversary of the day that he reached Caxamarca, 
Pizarro entered Cuzco by the side of the legitimate Inca 
and amidst the acclamations of the people. Liberated 
from the tyranny of Quizquiz, they had yet to learn 
the true character of their deliverers. For a brief 
moment there was no feeling but joy and gratitude. 
The Spaniards were astonished at the size of the im- 
perial city, and at the magnificence of the principle 
edifices. The inauguration of Manco was celebrated 
with all the ancient splendor, the Spanish troops tak- 
ing part, and Valverde performing high mass in honor 
of the event. But this harmony was of brief duration. 
There were four hundred and eighty invaders all thirst- 
ing for gold. First the tombs and public buildings 
were rifled, then private houses were searched, and 
even torture was applied to enforce revelations of the 
locality of hidden treasure. Before many weeks the 
dream was dispelled, and the unhappy people soon 
found that they were the subjects of tyrants worse than 
Quizquiz, because their dominion was less easy to shake 
off, and their exactions were more enduring and per- 
manent. 

The "Ayuntamiento" or municipal council was in- 
stalled on the 24th of March, 1534. The temple of 
Uira-cochayNQS selected for a cathedral, the Ccuri-cancha 
or Temple of the Sun became a monastery of Domini- 
cans, and other public edifices were seized for churches 
and barracks; or set apart to be divided among the con- 
querors for private residences. Meanwhile Quizquiz 
had busily collected recruits and once more took the 



88 A HISTORY OF PERU 

field. He was defeated by Manco, with some Spanish 
auxiliaries, at the bridge of the Apurimac. The active 
old general then made a rapid march, and attacked 
the Spaniards at Xauxa, but was again repulsed. Fi- 
nally he retreated to Quito where he was killed in a 
mutiny of his own soldiers. 

The conquest of Quito followed quickly on that of 
Cuzco. Sebastian de Benalcazar had been left in com- 
mand at San Miguel. A native of Estremadura, he 
was one of Pizarro's most trusted lieutenants. With 
Pizarro he was godfather to Almagro's little son, and 
this constituted a near tie between the three, for the 
relationship of "Compadre" is looked upon as a very 
close one in Spain. Benalcazar was a cavalier of 
great ability and high ambition. He resolved to attempt 
the conquest of Quito. The Cafiaris had come to him, 
to pray for help against Atahualpa's general Rumi-naui. 
He had no orders to leave his post, but prompted by 
ambition he undertook the enterprise. Marching 
through the province of Paltos, and largely reinforced 
by the Canaris who thirsted to avenge the cruelties 
inflicted on their tribes by Atahualpa, Benalcazar en- 
countered the army of Rumi-naui at Tiocajas. A suc- 
cession of skirmishes followed until thenative army was 
entirely defeated on the plains of Riobamba. A force 
had been detached from Cuzco to support Benalcazar 
under the command of Almagro, and the two chiefs 
formed a junction near Quito. 

Almagro was also entrusted with another duty. Pi- 
zarro had received tidings that Alonzo de Alvarado, 
the governor of Guatemala, envious of the wealth of 
Peru, had fitted out an expedition with the object of 
participating in the plunder. It was a wild and reckless 
undertaking. He landed at Puerto Viejo and began 



CONQUEST OF PERU 89 

his march to Quito. His followers endured the most 
terrible sufferings from the difficulties of a densely 
wooded, mountainous country, from thirst, hunger and 
sickness, and afterward from intense cold. They reached 
the lofty ridge of the Cordilleras the moment when there 
was a tremendous eruption of the volcano of Cotopaxi. 
Alvarado and his people were in such miserable con- 
dition when they encountered Almagro near Ambato, 
that they were glad to come to terms. Alvarado agreed 
to abandon his enterprise and return to Guatemala on 
condition that he received $100,000 as an indemnity 
for his expenses. Some of his followers, including his 
relation Diego Alvarado,the famous Alonzo de Alvarado 
of Burgos who was not a relation, Garcilasso de la 
Vega, Pedro de Puelles, Garcia Holguin, and Juan de 
la Rada, joined Almagro ; all men who took a promi- 
nent part in the future history of the conquest. Diego 
Alvarado became a devoted friend of Almagro, faithful 
to the end. Others took service under Benalcazar, 
who proceeded with the subjugation of Quito. Heap- 
while Pizarro, in order to repel the invasion of Alva- 
rado, had left his brother Juan in command at Cuzco, 
and had taken up a position at Xauxa to await events ; 
in company with the Inca Manco, who entertained his 
ally with a grand chacu or hunt. Pizarro was well satis- 
fied with the capitulation arranged by his partner, and 
received Alvarado as a friend. Many of those who 
surrounded him urged that Alvarado ought to be sent 
a prisoner to Spain instead of receiving an idemnity. 
Pizarro nobly replied; "I ought to pay what has been 
promised in my name and those are not m}^ friends, 
who, to the detriment of my honor, give me advice 
which might be good for cheating attorneys, but not for 
knights and gentlemen." The two distinguished war- 



go A HISTORY OF PERU 

riors met at Pachacamac, whence Alvarado embarked 
and returned to his own government loaded with pres- 
ents. Antonio Picado, who came to Peru with Alva- 
rado, was an astuie intriguer. He entered the service 
of Pizarro at Pachacamac, and was the governor's 
secretary during the rest gi his life. 

Hitherto we have only seen Pizarro in his character 
of soldier and diplomatist. He now enters upon his 
career as an administrator; and his abilities are as re- 
markably displayed in consolidating his conquest, as 
in the work of invasion and in the military operations 
it involved. With the prophetic insight of a born 
ruler of men Pizarro saw that the capital of his gov- 
ernment must be on the coast so as to be in direct 
communication with Panama, and to be a centre of 
commerce whence civilization and prosperity might 
radiate to the inland provinces. After an examination 
of the coast valleysin company with his secretary Pi- 
cado, he fixed upon the wide valley of the Rimac as 
the most central and convenient, while its extent and 
fertilit}^ would make it suitable as a source of supply 
for a large and populous city. He selected a site on 
the banks of the river Rimac, at a distance of two 
leagues from the sea. Here the first stones were laid 
on Monday, the i8th of January, 1535. The new 
capital was called "Ciudad de Los Reyes" (city of the 
Kings), in honor of the sovereigns of Spain, Juana and 
her son Charles V. The more modern name of Lima 
is a corruption of Rimac, the name of the river. The 
first citizens were sixty in number, including Pizarro 
himself. Of these thirty came down from Xauxa, and 
eighteen from the seaport of San Gallan which had been 
established further south. The first Alcaldes were 
Nicolas de Ribera and Juan Tello, the treasurer Alonso 



CONQ UEST OF PER U 9 1 

de Riquelme, and among the Regidores was one of 
those who crossed the line at the island of Gallo, 
Cristoval de Peralta. The "Plaza Mayor" was first lined 
out with a cathedral to be built on one side, a "Cabildo" 
or municipal building opposite, and a palace on the 
third side. The first stone oi the cathedral was laid 
by Pizarro on January i8th, 1535. It was consecrated 
on October 19th, 1625, an interval of more than ninety 
years. Meanwhile Pizarro's house, with a garden be- 
hind, was on the south side, on the site of the present 
Callejon de los Petateros. The work of building went 
side by side with that of forming delicious fruit and 
flower gardens, irrigated by numerous small channels 
from the Rimac, and of cultivating vegetables for the 
supply of the market in the new city. Pizarro was 
now past sixty years of age; but he threw himself into 
the arrangement of all the details with the enthusiasm 
of youth. He ordered that the streets should be wider 
than those of Spanish cities, perfectly straight and 
crossing each other at regular intervals. Not content 
with the foundation of Lima, the governor considered 
that a settlement should be formed half way between 
the capital and SanMiguel. With this object in view 
he selected the fertile valley of the Chimu, where a 
cit)^ was founded and named Truxillo, in honor of the 
native place of Pizarro. 

The brief period of peace was interrupted by the 
ambitious schemes and exacting conduct of the old 
Marshal Almagro. His disputes with Juan and Gon- 
zalo Pizarro obliged the governor to leave the works 
at his new capital and hasten to Cuzco. Almagro was 
a generous and open hearted old man and made many 
friends. He was brave and impetuous, but querulous 
and inclined to be jealous. His total want of educa- 



92 A HISTORY OF PERU 

tion was not made up for by any of the natural genius 
of Pizarro, while his ugliness was increased by the loss 
of an eye. Kis present turbulence was caused by ex- 
aggerated reports of the concession of territory that 
had been granted him, and which was being brought 
out by Hernando Pizarro. The governor succeeded in 
smoothing over matters, and in renewing the mutual 
protestations of friendship between the two partners. 
Chile was undoubtedly within the jurisdiction of Alma- 
gro, and the old marshal resolved to lead an expedi- 
tion into that distant country. He was accompanied by a 
large native army commanded by Paullu and the Villac 
Umu (High Priest,) two brothers of the Inca Manco, 
and the Spaniards who followed Almagro were led by 
himself and his trusted lieutenants Saavedra, Rodrigo 
Orgonez and Juan de la Rada. They left Cuzco in 
July, 1535. Pizarro returned to Lima, where he bade 
farewell to the valiant and chivalrous cavalier Her- 
nando de Soto, who left Peru loaded with princely 
gifts from the governor, to win renown m other lands, 
and to find a grave in the bed of the Mississippi. 

Hernando Pizarro had arrived in Spain with the 
royal fifth of Atahualpa's ransom, amounting to 155,- 
'^^oo pesos of gold and 5,400 marcs of silver. His recep- 
tion was most cordial, and his requests were freely 
granted. The friar Valverde was named Bishop of 
Cuzco. The governor, Francisco Pizarro, was created 
marquis. His government received the name of Nueva 
Castilla. Its northern boundary was to be the river of 
Santiago in about 1° 2' S. and it was to extend south- 
ward on a meridian for two hundred and seventy leagues, 
including all the land east and west. Almagro received 
the grant of a province to be named New Toledo, to 
commence where Pizarro's ended, and to extend south- 



CONQ UEST OF PER U 93 

ward for two hundred leagues. Here was a fruitful 
source of contention, for the latitude of the Santiago 
river had not yet been fixed, and no meridional meas- 
urements had been made. In point of fact as there 
were seventeen and a half Spanish leagues to a degree, 
this award placed Pizarro's limit at 15° S : and Cuzco 
was well within it. 

Hernando Pizarro, when he returned to P^u, re- 
mained for a short time with his brother at Lima, and 
then proceeded to Cuzco where he joined his two 
younger brothers Juan and Gonzalo. Meanwhile the 
natives were preparing for a supreme effort to throw 
off the yoke of their oppressors. The Villac Umu, 
leaving the expedition of Almagro, had returned to 
Cuzco. He urged his brother Inca Manco to take the 
opportunity of the Spaniards being scattered, to cut 
them off in detail. He advocated the cause of freedom 
with fiery eloquence, and reminded the people of the 
robbery of their tombs and temples, and of the oppres- 
sion under which the}/ suffered. On the i8th of April, 
1536, Manco escaped from Cuzco and raised the stand- 
ard of revolt in the valley of Yucay. The siege of 
Cuzco was a glorious and patriotic effort on the part 
of the Inca and his subjects. Hernando's numbers 
were so small that he was obliged to abandon the cita- 
del on the precipitous hill above Cuzco, and to con- 
centrate his force within the city. The celebrated for- 
tress was immediately occupied by the Inca, whose 
numerous followers closley blockaded Cuzco and poured 
continuous showers of darts and stones into the streets. 
Arrows entwined with burning tow set the thatch of 
the roofs on fire, and for some time the whole city 
was in a blaze. The besieged Spaniards were allowed 
no peace by day or night ; for the assaults of the Incas 



94 A HISTORY OF PERU 

were incessantly renewed. Hernando Pizarro consid- 
ered it absolutely necessary to recover the fortress. 
His brother Juan claimed the post of danger, sa3ang 
"By my counsel this post was abandoned, it is mine to 
recover it." He made the attack by night, surprising 
the enemy in the first line, and vigorously assaulting 
the second wall. He was opposed by thousands of 
valiant Inca warriors. Leading the forlorn hope, Juan 
Pizarro was mortally wounded by a blow on the head. 
His soldiers pressed onward, but the result was long 
doubtful. The Incas fought with lieroic braver3^ Gon- 
zalo Pizarro, at the head of the cavalr)^, performed 
prodigies of valor. Hernando directed the operation 
with intrepid coolness. Two out of three towers were 
carried b}^ assault. The Villac Umu, abandoning hope, 
fled by the precipitous southern face of the Sacsahua- 
man hill. One hero held the third tower almost sin- 
gle handed. His name was Calmide. When all was 
lost he gathered his yacollo or mantle around his head, 
and threw himself over the precipice. The Incas now 
lost heart. Confidence in their good fortune had de= 
parted; and the Spaniards succeeded in getting in large 
supplies of maize from the plain of Sacsahuana. 

Juan Pizarro died after lingering in great pain for a 
fortnight. His loss was deeply lamented. He was 
brave as a lion and a soldier of great ability ; while he 
was beloved by his companions in arms for his amiable 
manners and the kindness of his disposition. 

The siege was renewed but with less vigor than at 
first. The Incas were terribly disheartened by the 
loss of the fortress. Hernando resorted to atrocious 
cruelty in the hope of striking terror. He cut off the 
hands of all prisoners and ordered that no quarter 



CONQUEST OF PERU 95 

should by given to the women. At length, after a 
siege of five months, Manco was obliged to allow his 
people to return to sow their fields, while he himself 
retired to the stronghold of OUantay-tambo, in the 
valley of Yucay. Hoping to end the war by his cap- 
ture, Hernando Pizarro marched down the valley, and 
made a desperate assault on the fortress, but he was 
gallantly repulsed again and again, returning unsuc- 
cessful to Cuzco. This victory encouraged the Inca to 
renew tne siege of his capital, but meanwhile the for- 
aging parties under Gabriel de Rojas had brought in 
many loads of maize and flocks of llamas. 

The rising had not been confined to the country 
round Cuzco. Titu Yupanqui, an uncle of the Inca, 
led a numerous army against Lima. Pizarro pre- 
pared for the assault by concealing his cavalry on 
either flank of the enemy, and when they advanced they 
were surprised and cut to pieces. Titu Yupanqui and 
his principal chiefs were slain and his followers were 
put io flight. But the old Marquis was impressed 
with the magnitude of the danger. He despatched 
letters, asking for help, to the governors of Mexico, 
Guatemala, and Panama : and sent all the men he 
could spare, about two hundred and fifty men and fifty 
horses, to raise the siege of Cuzco, under the command 
of Alonzo de Alvarado. The appeal of the Marquis 
received a prompt response, and vessels arrived with 
reinforcements from the other governments. Among 
the airivals was Francisco de Carbajal who afterward 
became so famous. Hernan Cortes, the conqueror of 
Mexico, also sent a rich ermine robe as a present to 
Pizarro, who always wore it on state occasions. Alma- 
gro had reached Chile by an extraordinary march across 
the Cordilleras, and advanced as far as Coquimbo. 



96 A HISTORY OF PERU 

But he found nothing but poverty, and, therefore, re- 
solved to abandon his enterprise and return to Peru. 
His officers urged him to sieze upon Cuzco as a part 
of his government of Nueva Toledo and enjoy the rich- 
est province of the Inca empire. Returning by the 
desert of Atacama he reached Arequipa, where he 
heard for the first time that the Incas were in arms 
against their Spanish conquerors. But on the approach 
of this new enemy from Chile with five hundred men, 
Manco gave up hope. He retired into Vilcabamba, 
the wild mountainous country between the rivers Apur- 
imac and Vilcamayu, where he maintained his inde- 
pendence with his family and relations, and a small 
body of devoted followers. 

Thus fell the great and powerful empire of the Incas, 
and with it the admirable system of government which 
had promoted the happiness of millions of people dur- 
ing many generations. Various attempts were made 
to capture the fugitive Manco Inca, but they always 
failed. He received four of the proscribed members 
of Almagro's faction under his protection and, in a 
sudden brawl, he met his death from one of them, in 
the year 1544. He left four children respecting whose 
fate there will be more to say hereafter. Except dur- 
ing the short period that he was deceived by Pizarro's 
diplomacy, the last of the reigning Incas maintained 
an independent position, and did battle manfully for 
his country and his people. 



CHAPTER IV 

PIZARRO AND ALAIAGRO 

With the return of the Marshal from Chile, the 
death struggle commenced between the two partners, 
Pizarro and Almagro. Their dispute was one that 
could only be peaceabl}^ settled by arbitration and an 
appeal to Spain, for it involved scientific observations 
and accurate measurements by unprejudiced umpires. 

They preferred force and the loser had to take the 
consequences. It was Almagro who first had recourse 
to this method. Urged on by his devoted but ambi- 
tious followers, the old man claimed the surrender of 
Cuzco as a city included within the bounds of his gov- 
ernment. Hernando Pizarro, exhausted by the long 
siege and too weak to resist, attempted to negotiate 
for a few days. Almagro had four hundred and fifty 
warriors devoted to his cause. Hernando could barely 
muster two hundred combatants, exhausted b}^ long 
watching and hard fighting during many months. He 
strove to gain time, having secret tidings that Alonzo 
de Alvarado was advancing with succor from Lima ; but 
this also became known to the advisers of Almagro, and 
they persuaded the old man to braak the truce and make 
a night attack on the city. The Pizarros had no sus- 

7 97 



98 A HISTORY OF PERU 

picion and had retired to rest. Their house was at- 
tacked by Rodrigo Ordonez, the lieutenant of Almagro, 
and as they made a desperate defence, he set the roof 
on fire, and they had no alternative but to come out 
and surrender. Almagro thus took possession of Cuzco 
by force on the i8th of April, 1537. Orgofiez urged the 
Marshal to put Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro to death, 
as reconciliation was no longer possible, and the}^ were 
too dangerous to be allowed to live. But milder coun- 
sels prevailed, and they were merely imprisoned. 

Alvarado had reached Abancay, about ninety miles 
from Cuzco. He was in a strong position, on the 
banks of the rapid river Pachachaca, in a lovely valley 
surrounded by loft}^ mountains. His force was nearly 
equal to that of Almagro, but several of his followers 
were in communication with the enem}', and more were 
half-hearted and irresolute. The noble knight Gar- 
cilasso de la Vega, Gomez de Tordoya, and Alvarez 
Holguin, who had landed in Peru with Alvarado and 
shared the horrors of the march to Quito Avith him, 
were staunch ; and on these he could x^\y . Holguin, 
however, was taken prisoner when making a recon- 
naissance beyond the river. Almagro sent four envoys 
to Alvarado, to tell him that if he came to raise the 
siege of Cuzco his help was no longer needed, and 
to require him to submit to the governor of New To- 
ledo in whose jurisdiction his arm}^ was encamped. 
They were courteously received and invited to dinner, 
but after dessert they were informed that they were 
prisoners, and were placed in a stone hut under a 
guard. Garcilasso de la Vega, Tordoya, and Holguin 
are said to have protested against this treatment of 
ambassadors. Paullu Inca, the brother of Manco, 
had accompanied Almagro to Chile, and continued con- 



PIZARRO AND ALMAGRO 99 

stant in his attachment to the old chief. He was sent, 
with a large force of natives, to harass Alvarado dur- 
ing the night; and next morning, the 13th of July, 
1537, Orgoiiez led his cavalry across the river by a 
ford while Almagro attacked the Pachachaca bridge. 
The victory vv^as complete, and Alvarado, with all his 
officers, became prisoners. 

Thus far Almagro had been completely successful. 
His next step was difficult to decide upon. His ablest 
lieutenant, Rodr:go Orgonez, had served under the Con- 
stable Bourbon and was at the sack of Rome. He took 
the shortest cut to secure his ends. His advice was to 
put the Pizarros and Alvarado to death, and to advance 
on Lima by forced marches. Moderate counsels were 
represented by Diego Alvarado, a devoted adherent of 
Almagro, who felt that the Marshal's safety depended 
on the justice and humanity of his acts. Almagro, 
who was hasty and choleric, but in the main generous 
and kind hearted, wavered between these two opinions, 
and the lives of the Pizarros were in considerable 
danger for several months. The Marquis had set out 
from Lima, with additional reinforcements in support 
of Alvarado ; and received the alarming news of the 
violent proceedings of his old partner when he was 
encamped in the coast valley of Huarco, the modern 
Canete. In the period of peace he had become deeply 
interested in the work of settling the country. He 
now saw his hopes shattered and a disastrous struggle 
forced upon him. "This, " he exclaimed, "is Almagro's 
return to me, after losing a beloved and gallant brother, 
and having spent all I possess in pacifying the coun- 
try. I mourn for the danger of my brothers, but still 
more that two friends in their old age, should plunge 
into a civil war to the injury alike of the king's ser- 



loo A HISTORY OF PERU 

vice and of the countr}^ " This blow destroyed the last 
lingering feeling of friendship for his old comrade. 
Pizarro returned to Lima to make defensive prepara- 
tions, at the same time sending envoys to Almagro's 
camp to treat for the liberation of his brothers. His 
chief ambassador was the licentiate Caspar de Espi- 
nosa who had taken such an active part in the settle- 
ment of Panama, and had materiall}^ aided in the dis- 
covery of Peru b}^ advancing funds through the agency 
of Luque. At the urgent call of Pizarro, when con- 
fronted by the Inca rising, Espinosa had come to Lima 
with a reinforcement of two hundred and fift}^ men. 
Arriving at Cuzco, he found that Almagro was inclined 
to make exorbitant demands, requiring the cession of 
all the coast valleys as far as Mala, within a short 
distance of Lima. The Marquis was inclined to con- 
cede anything that would secure the release of his 
brothers, but not in good faith. Espinosa was taken 
ill and died while the negotiations were proceeding, 
and Almagro marched down to the coast with his arm}^ 
declaring his intention to found a capital for his gov- 
ernment in the valle}' of Chincha. Almost the last 
words of Espinosa to the wrong-headed old man were — 
"El veficido vencidoy el vencidor perdido" — "The conquered 
conquered, and the conqueror lost." Gonzalo Pizarro 
and Alvarado were left in prison at Cuzco, while Her- 
nando was brought down with Almagro's army, under 
a strong escort. Orgonez once more urged their exe- 
cution, saying "A Pizarro never forgave an injur}^, and 
that which they have received from 5^ou is too great to 
be forgiven by even a less vindictive man." It was 
the last chance. Twent}^ days after Almagro left Cuz- 
co, Alvarado and Gonzalo Pizarro escaped from prison. 



PIZARRO AND ALMA GEO loi 

having gained over about thirty soldiers, and the lit- 
tle party arrived safely at Lima. 

The advisers of Almagro found that the Marquis 
was stronger than thej^ had supposed. They encamped 
at Chincha, where a city was founded and named Al- 
magro. Negotiations were then resumed, and at length 
it was agreed that a friar named Bobadilla should de- 
cide the dispute, both parties abiding by his arbitra- 
tion. His first proposal was that there should be an 
interview between the old partners, and that they 
should renew their friendship. An interview was ar- 
ranged in the valley of Mala, but the time was gone 
by for friendship. Pizarro was to come from Lima 
and Almagro from Chincha, each attended by only twelve 
knights. Nevertheless Gonzalo had an ambush in the 
thick reeds near the Mala river to seize Almagro, 
while Orgonez advanced to within a short distance 
of the appointed place. Thus neither party kept faith. 
Pizarro and Almagro met, but not as friends. They 
stood just within talking distance, and entered upon 
a violent altercation. In a pause Almagro heard two 
lines of an old song being hummed in a low voice un- 
der the window. 

"Time it is, O cavalier; 
Time it is to fly from here."* 

He made a frivolous excuse for leaving the room, 
sprang on his horse, and galloped away ; taking the 
lines as a warning, as they were intended b}' Francisco 
Godoy — the singer of them. Almagro refused to re- 
turn ; and Bobadilla proceeded to consider his award. 
He found that the pilots of the two parties could not 
agree, and therefore decided that a ship should be 

*"Tiempo es el cavallero; 
Tiempo es de andar de aqui." 



I02 A HISTORY OF PERU 

despatched to ascertain the latitude of the river San- 
tiago which was the starting point whence the distances 
were to be measured, that the INIarquis should retire 
to Lima and the Marshal to Nasca until the result was 
received, that Cuzco having been seized lawlessly 
and by force, should be restored to the Marquis, and 
that there should be perpetual peace and friendship be- 
tween the two parties. The sentence was published on 
the 15th of November, 1538. 

When the award reached Chincha, the part}' of Alma- 
gro was furious, and Hernando Pizarro's life was in 
the greatest danger, for he was still a prisoner there. 
The Marquis trembled for his brother, and at length 
agreed to forego the possesson of Cuzco until the 
king's orders were received, on condition that Her- 
nando was liberated. Almagro agreed, and the three 
brothers were once more united at Lima, But the}^ 
did not consider binding the concessions that had been 
extorted from the Marquis through fear for his impris- 
oned brother. On the contrar}^ they were resolved on 
the destruction of Almagro. 

The Marquis declared war, and the arm}^ of Almagro 
retreated to Hua3'tara on the river of Pisco, and thence 
by wa}^ of Guamanga to Cuzco. Hernando Pizarro, 
seconded by an experienced soldier who had served in 
Italy, named Pedro de Valdivia, led the army of the 
Marquis. He marched along the coast as far as Nasca, 
and then crossed the Cordilleras of Lucanas, arriving 
at the plain of Salinas within a league of the Inca 
capital. There it was resolved that the battle should 
be fought. Old Almagro was too infirm to mount a 
horse, but he was carried out of Cuzco in a litter, lest 
his absence should discourage his troops. Ongonez 
took the command, and encamped close to the enemy. 



PIZARRO AND ALMAGRO 103 

On the morning of the 26th of April, 1539, the battle 
commenced with flank attacks of natives troops under 
Paullu, but the main body could not maintain the same 
order as the infantry of Hernando and Valdivia. They 
fell into confusion, and began to retreat, closely pressed 
upon by their well trained adversaries who were as- 
sisted by a flank charge of cavalry. Seeing all was 
lost, Orgonez shouted "Follow me who will, I go to 
seek death in the cause of duty." He dashed forward, 
but his horse fell and he was taken prisoner, and vilely 
slaughtered. Hernando Pizarro was conspicuous from 
his orange colored doublet and the white plume on his 
helmet; and several captains surrendered to him per- 
sonally. The rout was complete. Old Almagro fled 
to the Sacsahuaman hill, but was brought down and 
committed to the same prison in which he had so 
long confined Hernando. The conquerors only lost 
fifteen men, while one hundred and twenty soldiers 
of Almagro bit the dust. 

It does not appear that Hernando intended to take 
the old Marshal's life at first. But attempts were made 
to arrange his escape, and large bribes were offered to the 
officers on guard. Hernando then became alarmed and 
declared the prisoner's offences deserved capital pun- 
ishment. When it was objected that the execution 
might be displeasing to the sovereign, Gonzalo is said 
to have replied — "If the king does not take the death 
of the Marshal well, we have good lances." A series of 
charges were drawn up and the old man, having been 
sentenced to death, was strangled in prison. The 
body was buried in the church of La Merced. Alma 
gro did good service in the work of the conquest, but 
he was neither an able soldier nor an administrator. 
Basil}' led by others, he was generous and warm- 



I04 A HISTORY OF PERU 

hearted, and he certainly brought around hinT a number 
of men who were devoted to his interests, revered his 
memory, and thirsted to avenge his death. The exe- 
cution took place on the loth or 12th of July, 1538. 
The Marquis was on his way from Lima to Cuzco, 
but he made a long stay at Xauxa, where he must 
have received the news of the battle of Salinas long 
before Almagro's trial. There was plenty of time for 
his will to have been made known, and he must share, 
with his brother, the responsibility for his old partner's 
death. Almagro left an onh/ child named Diego whose 
mother was a native of Panama, and to whom he was 
devotedly attached. The boy was sent down to Lima, 
and Pizarro promised to treat him as his own son. 

The Marquis Pizarro entered Cuzco in triumph, 
dressed in the rich ermine robe that had been pre- 
sented to him by Cortes. Once more he was able to 
devote his attention to the settlement of the country. 
He despatched exploring expeditions in all directions. 
Hernando Pizarro proceeded to the Collao and Charcas 
to establish order and develop the mining industry. 
Yaldivia undertook the conquest of Chile. Lorenzo 
•de Aldana was sent to assume the government of Quito 
in succession to Benalcazar who had gone to Europe. 
Aldana, like Pizarro, was a native of Estremadura, 
and one of the noblest and most humiane of the con- 
querors. Expeditions were also sent into the eastern 
forests. The report of the discovery of a land of cin- 
namon to the eastward of Quito induced Gonzalo Pi- 
zarro himself to undertake a toilsome and hazardous 
journey into the forest, which resulted in the discovery 
of the whole course of the river Amazon by his lieu- 
tenant Francisco de Orellana. 

Several important cities were founded in various 



PIZARRO AND ALMAGRO 105 

parts of Peru. On the 24th of June, 1539, a settlement 
was formed at Guamanga, with the object of checking 
incursions of natives under the influence of the Inca. 
The Marquis visited Charcas, and then proceeded to 
Arequipa, where another city was founded in August, 
1540. He then returned to Lima, where he took leave 
of his brother Hernando who had resolved to return to 
Spain and defend his conduct with respect to Almagro. 
But the friends of the old Marshal, including the faith- 
ful Diego Alvarado, had arrived before him. His pro- 
ceedings were condemned and he was imprisoned for 
twent}^ years in the castle of Medina del Campo. But 
his confinement was not very rigorous, for in 1551 he 
married his niece Francisca, an illegitimate daughter 
of the Marquis by an Inca princess by whom he had 
three sons. Liberated in 1560 he died in his native 
town of Truxillo in 1578, having-nearly attained the age 
of a hundred years. In the beginning of the next cen- 
tury his grandson received a grant of rents, and was 
created a Knight of Santiago and Marquis of the Con- 
quest, the latter title descending to his posterity. 

The troubles ending in the death of Almagro induced 
the Spanish government to decide that a commissioner 
should be sent out to investigate and submit a full re- 
port on the state of Peru, but not to supersede the 
Marquis. The licentiate Cristobal Vaca de Castro was 
selected for this delicate office. Born in 1492 he had 
become a Judge in the Court of Valladolid at the age 
of forty-five, and his reputation as a learned jurist led 
to his appointment. He was to be simply a royal 
judge if he found the Marquis alive, but if he was 
dead Vaca de Castro was to succeed him as governor. 
He sailed from San Lucar on the 5th of November, 



io6 A HISTORY OF PERU 

1540, arriving at Panama on the 24th of the following 
February. 

Meanwhile the Marquis was busily engaged at Lima, 
superintending the affairs of his government and the 
progress of his capital. His brave spirit disregarded 
the dangers gathering round him, and the numerous 
warnings he received. His absolute fearlessness was 
alike the main cause of his marvelous success and of 
his death. Many ruined men of the defeated faction 
of Almagro, called in contempt "the men of Chile," 
had assembled at Lima. Rendered desperate by pov- 
erty, and exasperated by their ill luck, they were ripe 
for any crime. The guiding spirit among them was 
Juan de la Rada, an able and accomplished soldier 
who had been devoted to Almagro and who now con- 
sidered himself the guardian of his son Almagro "el 
mozo" (Almagro, the lad) as he was called. Pizarro 
was warned that these men were collecting arms. They 
passed him in the street with sulky looks and without 
saluting. When he was urged to arrest or banish 
them, he replied "Poor fellows ; they have had trouble 
enough. We will not molest them more." He even 
sent for Juan de la Rada, had an interview with him 
in his garden, argued with him, and gave him some 
oranges on parting, among the first grown in Peru, 
saying, "Ask frankly of me what you desire." 

Juan de la Rada had even then organized a conspi- 
racy to murder the Marquis. One of his comrades 
divulged it under the seal of confession, and Pizarro 
was again warned by the priest, but he merely observed 
that some one was trying to get a reward by these 
tales. The next day was Sunday, the 26th of June, 
1541. The conspirators assembled in a house on the 
other side of the square to that of the governor. It 



PIZARRO AND ALMAGRO 107 

was at tne corner cf the present Callejon de Cleri^os. 
Here Almagro the lad was lodging. Contrary to ex- 
pectation the Marquis had not gone to hear mass, but 
several friends had come to dine with him at noon. At 
the same hour twenty conspirators ran across the 
square toward the governor's house, shouting "Death 
to the tyrant!" One of them named Gomez Perez 
ran round a puddle to avoid wetting his feet. "What!" 
exclaimed Rada, "are we going to bathe in human 
blood and do you fear to wet your feet with water? 
You are not the man for this work. Go back!" The 
governor's house only had one door toward the square. 
It was of great strength and if it had been closed no 
entrance could have been effected. But it was wide 
open. The murderers rushed into the court-yard. 

The Marquis had several friends assembled to dine 
with him. These were his half brother Francisco 
Martin de Alcantara, who was a citizen of Lima and 
had a house at one of the corners of the great square ; 
Francisco de Chaves, one of the most illustrious knights 
in Peru, who had protested against the execution of 
Atahualpa; Dr. Juan Velasquez the alcalde of the 
city ; the inspector Garcia de Salcedo ; Luis de Rivera ; 
Juan Ortiz de Zarate ; Alonzo de Manjarres ; Fran- 
cisco de Ampuero ; Gormez de Luna ; Pedro Lopez de 
Casalla ; Rodrigo Pantoja ; Diego Ortiz de Guzman; 
Juan Perez ; Alonzo Perez de Esquivei ; Hernan Nunez 
de Segura ; Juan Henriquez ; Gonzalo Hernandez de la 
Torre ; Juan Bautista Mallero ; Hernan Gonzalez and 
the bishop-elect of Quito. Twenty Spanish gentlemen 
with grand mouth-filling names enough, but they might 
as well have been a flock of sheep. A young page 
named Diego de Vargas, son of the captain Gomez de 
Tordoya, was out in the square. He ran into the house 



io8 A HISTORY OF PERU 

crying "To arms! to arms! all the men of Chile are 
coming to kill the Marquis, my Lord." There was an 
immediate rush of the guests down the staircase to the 
first landing. Nearly all dropped themselves out of 
the windows into the garden, and ran away. The 
Alcalde held his wand of office in his mouth, so that 
his hands might be free in dropping from the balcony. 
Martin de Alcantara, Luna and the two pages, Vargas 
and Escandon, ran into an inner chamber to arm them- 
selves. Zarate, Casalla and Vergara, though tremb- 
ling with fear, remained in the dining-room. The 
Marquis threw off a loose gown, and snatched up a 
lance. The murderers, excited by the furious words of 
Juan de la Rada, ascended the staircase, but found the 
first door was closed. Francisco de Chaves opened it 
to dispute the passage, and received a blow which 
stretched him dead on the stairs. There was an ante- 
room to pass before the room in which Pizarro was 
could be reached. Alcantara defended it for some time 
sword in hand, but was forced back to the inner door. 
The Marquis shouted "What shameful thing is this! 
Why do you wish to kill me?" They replied with 
oaths and curses, rushing at the door. Alcantara fell 
dead. The old man, with a cloak twisted round one 
arm, and a sword in the other, rushed to the door, 
supported by the two faithful young pages. Two assas- 
sins fell dead from the well aimed thrusts of his sword. 
Rada shrieked out "What delay is this ! let us put an 
end to the tyrant," and seizing one Navarro around the 
waist he pushed him forward against the Marquis, 
while others murdered the two boys. Surrounded and 
exhausted the aged warrior then received a mortal 
wound in the throat. He fell to the ground, made the 
sign of the cross on the floor and kissed it, sighing the 



PIZARRO AND ALMAGRO 109 

word "Jesus" just as one of the ruffians dashed his 
brains out with a jar full of water. 

Thus fell the conqueror of Peru. He must have been 
upwards of seventy years of age. He was certainly no 
ordinary man. It is unfair to judge him by a severe 
or a very high standard. Born in the lowest rank of 
life, and wholly uneducated, he did not raise himself 
either by low and cunning arts or by ruffianly audacity. 
It is clear that he won the confidence of his comrades 
and his superiors by his meritorious conduct, and 
through possessing the best qualities of a soldier — trust- 
worthiness, constancy, endurance, valor, and resource. 
The romantic aspiration of conquering a mighty em- 
pire invigorated and elevated his nature. He became 
capable of acts of incredible and long sustained dar- 
ing, and of steadiness of aim, combined with resource 
and power of combination which amounted to genius. 
His lofty aspirations gave a dignity and nobleness to 
his mien and to his speech. He acquired self respect 
and a sense of high responsibility as his ambitious 
dreams became realities. The great blot on his life 
story is the murder of Atahualpa, when he sacrificed 
his honor for the sake of expediency, and he did not 
scruple to break his word under the pressure of great 
difficulties. But this was not habitual with him, and 
his truer nature appeared when he kept faith with 
Alvarado. He was absolutely without fear. His am- 
bition was not sordid, and in his latter years, as a 
governor and administrator, he devoted himself, heart 
and soul, to his public duties. 

Pizarro was never married, but he had a son Fran- 
cisco, who was a schoolfellow of Garcilasso de la Vega 
and died young in Spain, by a daughter of Atahualpa 
named Anas, who was christened Angelina. He also 



no A HISTORY OF PERU 

had two children by an Inca princess, daughter of 
Huayna Capac, and christened Inez Nusta. The son 
Gonzalo died young. Francisca, the daughter, was 
brought to Spain by her stepfather Ampuero, and 
eventually married her uncle Hernando Pizarro, con- 
tinuing the line. Inez Nusta, after the murder of the 
Marquis, married the captain Francisco de Ampuero, one 
of the guests who escaped across the garden. 

The body of the Marquis was left on the floor when 
the assassins rushed out of the house, shouting 
"The tyrant is dead." An old servant named Juan de 
Barbaran, his wife, and some negro attendants hastily 
dressed the corpse in the habit of Santiago, wrapped it 
in a cotton sheet and, with a few prayers and lighted 
tapers deposited it in a corner of the church afterward 
called "Los Naranjos." On the restoration of author- 
ity the body was placed in a coffin of velvet with gold 
embroidery. In 1607 it was transferred to the new 
cathedral, and buried beside that of the good Viceroy 
Mendoza. 

The assassins were joined by about a hundred sym- 
pathizers. The governor's secretary Picado was seized 
and murdered two da3'^s afterward. The friends of the 
Marquis hid themselves or escaped. The officials 
either submitted or fled. The rudders and sails of the 
vessels in port were taken away, to prevent news from 
being conveyed to Panama. All the treasure at Lima 
was plundered. But Rada soon found that it was much 
easier to seize power than to maintain it. Expressions 
of indignation reached him from prominent captains in 
all parts of Peru. Inaction was fatal. The only hope 
was in rapid and complete success. Holguin, whom 
we last saw at the rout of Abanca}^, was in arms near 
Xauxa. Juan de la Rada, therefore, resolved to march 



PIZARRO AND ALMAGRO iii 

against him, with Almagro the lad, who was declared 
Governor of Peru. Rada died of fever at Xauxa, the 
pursuit of Holguin was abandoned, and, after nomi- 
nating Garcia de Alvarado to succeed Rada as his cap- 
tain-general, the ill fated boy with his band of mur- 
derers, took the road to Cuzco. Here a desperate 
feud broke out between Alvarado and another adher- 
ent of Almagro named Sotelo. The latter was mur- 
dered by his rival, and young Almagro caused Alvara- 
do to be put to death. The youthful mestizo now dis- 
played unexpected ability and resource. He was about 
twenty-two 5'ears of age, but had always been looked 
upon as a mere boy. He assumed personal command, 
won the confidence of his men by his evident capacit}' 
for the conduct of military affairs, and made active 
preparations for a campaign. He hoped that the ro3'al 
judge would entertain his claim to succeed his father 
as governor of New Toledo, but if not he was resolved 
to do battle for his rights. The veteran artillerist, 
Pedro de Candia, joined him, and a battery consisting 
of eight guns of considerable calibre for those da3^s, 
and eight falconets was made efficient. Even gun metal 
and powder were manufactured, and the Hispanicized 
Inca Paullu augmented the force with a large native 
contingent. For many months Cuzco was the scene 
of active and busy preparation. 

Vaca de Castro embarked at Panama for Callao, the 
port of Lima, but his squadron was dispersed by a 
storm off the island of Gallo, and he resolved to pro- 
ceed by land. The malarious coast about Buenaven- 
tura, and the journey through the teeming forest to the 
highlands of Popayan brought on a fever, and for some 
tim.e he was at death's door. But as soon as he was 
convalescent he resolutely pushed onward toward Peru. 



112 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Weakened by illness, wholly unused to a military life, 
and ignorant of the strength of the insurgents the task 
before him would have appalled a less resolute man. 
He received news of the murder of Pizarro soon after 
landing, and sent some account of it to the Emperor, 
in a letter dated at Quito on the 15th of Novemer, 1541. 
He received many loyal offers of service, and by the 
time he reached Xauxa a respectable force had gathered 
round the royal standard. Lima had declared for the 
king and Vaca de Castro, the day after the murderers 
departed. Pedro de Puelles, who commanded at Quito 
during the absence of Gonzalo Pizarro on his expedi- 
tion to the land of cinnamon, collected and manufac- 
tured arms. Alonzo de Alvarado and Alvarez Hol- 
guin collected troops. Gomez de Tordoya also hurried 
up from the south. Since his defeat at Abancay he 
had been engaged in exploring the montana and in 
sport. He passed most of his time in hawking, but 
he was a good all around sportsman. His brave little 
son had been Pizarro's page, and had been murdered 
in trying to defend his master. The news reached 
Tordoya when he was engaged in the chase. He 
clenched his teeth, threw the hawk from his wrist, and 
murmured, "Now it is time to fight and not to hunt." 
His thirst for vengeance on the murderers of his son 
gave a spur to his loyalty. 

Although brought up as a lawyer, Vaca de Castro 
found it necessary to take personal command of his 
army, to prevent feelings of jealousy among so man}^ 
captains of equal rank and experience. He paid a 
flying visit to Lima with a small escort, and on return- 
ing to Xauxa he received news t'hat the army of Alma- 
gro the lad had left Cuzco and advanced as far as 
Villcas. Vaca de Castro received a letter from the 



PIZARRO AND ALMAGRO 113 

young mestizo complaining that he should be treated 
as a rebel, and promising obedience if he received 
justice. He was told in reply that he would find grace 
if he dissolved his army, submitted himself to the 
king's judge, and gave up the murderers to justice. 

Vaca de Castro marched with his army from Xauxa 
to Guamanga, the city which had been founded by 
Pizarro on the 24th of June, 1539. It is situated 
in a broken country of ridges and ravines, with the 
maritime cordillera rising behind the city, and the mag- 
nificent range of Condor-kunka bounding the view at 
a distance of some leagues to the eastward. There are 
few more lovely views in the world, than are presented 
from the terraced fruit gardens on the mountain slopes 
above Guamanga. A steep ascent of six miles up the 
slope of the maritime cordillera brings the traveler to 
the point where a narrow path branches off the main 
road. Two miles more brings him to the ravine of 
Lambras-huayccu, on the other side of which is the plain 
of Chupas 11,375 f^^t above the level of the sea. It 
is a wide terrace rather than a plain, for the mountains 
rise abruptly from it to the west, and away to the east 
there is a view over a vast expanse of country, bounded 
by the lofty ridges of Condor-kunka. At a distance 
of a mile southward of the ravine a knoll rises gradually 
from the plain of Chupas until it merges in the masses of 
the cordillera. The way from Villcas to Guamanga 
passed along the base of the knoll, and across the 
plain to the ravine of Lambras-huayccu ; now the 
plain of Chupas is covered with wheat fields, but it was 
then waste, with some swampy ground at the base of 
the knoll. 

Vaca de Castro marched out of Guamanga on Satur- 
day the 13th of September, 1542, and encamped on the 



114 A HISTORY OF PERU 

edge of the ravine of Lambras-huayccu, with the way 
from Villcas to Guamanga at some distance on his left 
flank. For three days his soldiers were exposed to 
violent storms and snow. Intelligence reached Vaca de 
Castro that Almagro was marching along the road W'ith 
the intention of getting between his camp and Gua- 
manga, and thus cutting off the retreat of the royalists. 
Vaca de Castro was forced to extend his left wing so 
as to command the Guamanga road. Some low hills 
enabled him to give shelter to his arquebusiers from the 
artiller}^ of Pedro de Candia. Almagro, even after he 
had ascertained the position of the ro37al camp, contin- 
ued his march across the plain of Chupas toward Gua- 
manga, and the two armies came in sight at four in the 
afternoon of the i6th. Vaca de Castro hesitated to 
attack at so late an hour, but he was urged on b}' his 
captains and in moving from his well selected position 
he lost the advantage he would have had over the in- 
surgents. The ro3^alists numbered seven hundred men, 
well armed and with a fair proportion of excellent cav- 
alry. The marshal of the camp was that remarkable 
old veteran Francisco de Carbajal. He had come from 
Mexico w^hen Pizarro appealed to Cortes for help 
against the Inca rising, and had previousl}' had the 
experience of a life time in the campaigns of Italy. 
Now ver}^ old and enormousl_v stout, Carbajal was still 
active and full of energ3\ He was ruthlessl}' cruel, but 
brimming over with wit and humor so that people said 
it was quite a pleasure to be hanged b}' him, for the 
sake of his witticisms on such occasions. He was by 
far the best soldier in Peru. The attack was conducted 
by Carbajal. He led the army into the plain, wheel- 
ing slightly to the right, with a part}' of arquebusiers 
to protect the right flank : and advanced until he could 



PIZARRO AND ALMAGRO 115 

open fire on the rear guard of the insurgents. This 
movement obliged Ahnagro to halt, change his front, 
and form across the plain. The artillery under Pedro de 
Candia was posted on the knoll with a swamp on the 
left and the ravine of Lambras-huayccu on the right. 
The arquebusiers were stationed in rear of the guns, 
and cavalry on the flanks. Here Almagro waited an 
attack. 

The royal army was on some undulating hills about 
three hundred yards to the westward, with a flat plain 
between the contending hosts; but before it got into 
position and while in the act of wheeling, the infantry 
had been enfiladed by Candia's artillery, losing seven- 
teen men from a single shot, either killed or wounded. 
The right flank was guarded by cavalry led by Alonzo 
de Alvarado. On the left the cavalry was commanded 
by Alvarez Holguin and Garcilasso de la Vega. The 
master of the camp was supported by Gomez de Tor- 
doya : while Vaca de Castro himself was in the rear, 
with a reserve of thirty horsemen, including Lorenzo 
de Aldana, Die^o Centeno, and other knights. Alma- 
gro was at the head of the cavalry on his right 
flank, while the infantry formed the centre of his line, 
led by several of Pizarro's murderers. The force num- 
bered five hundred well trained soldiers, and the posi- 
tion enabled Almagro to sweep the intervening plain 
by his fire. Pedro Suarez, who had marshaled the in- 
surgent force with great ability, strongly advised Al- 
magro to remain immovable in the excellent position 
that had been selected. 

The shades of evening were gathering over the plain, 
when the native contingent of Almagro, under the 
Inca Paullu, made a sudden attack on the left flank of the 
royalists, but they were dispersed by the arquebusiers. 



ii6 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Carbajal saw the serious disadvantages of the position, 
and that the only safety was in an act of audacious 
temerity. Placing himself at the head of the columns 
of arquebusiers he led a rapid charge on the enemy's 
centre to get posssesion of the guns. At this critical 
moment young Almagro saw that the guns were ele- 
vated so as to pass over the heads of the advancing 
columns. Suspecting treason, he killed Pedro de 
Candia with one pass of his sword, pointed the guns 
afresh with his own hands, and fired with great effect 
into the close ranks of the approaching enemy. But 
he then committed a fatal error. Seeing that the cav- 
alry of Vaca de Castro was also advancing, he led his 
squadrons to the attack, gave up the general direction 
of his army, dashed into the plain, between his own 
artillery and the enemy, and thus lost all the advanta- 
ges of his position. His own gunners were obliged to 
cease firing while the hand to hand combat continued. 
It is true that the royalists suffered serious loss, Gomez 
de Tordoya being mortall}^ wounded and Holguin killed. 
But old Carbajal, taking advantage of the confusion, 
led on his infantry and captured all the guns of the 
enemy. A desperate fight was then commenced with 
Almagro's infantry, which was prolonged far into the 
night, for the murderers knew that for them there could 
be no terms. Pedro Suarez, disgusted that his strateg- 
ical arrangements should have been upset, went over 
to the camp of Vaca de Castro. The victory was long 
doubtful. It was decided b}^ a brilliant charge of the 
reserve of cavalry, led by the royal judge in person. 
This was at nine o'clock in the evening. As many as 
seven Imndred remained on the battle-field, of whom 
three hundred were dead, out of a total of 1200; so that 
fifty nine per cent of the combatants were killed or 



PIZARRO AND ALMAGRO 117 

wounded. Such is the desperate valor of men who 
fight with halters around their necks. 

Two days after the battle, such of the murderers of 
Pizarro as were made prisoners were tried and executed 
in the great square of Guamanga. Young Almagro 
escaped to Cuzco where he was arrested by the gov- 
ernor he had himself appointed, and delivered up to 
Vaca de Castro. After the punishment of the mur- 
derers, the obsequies of the two valiant knights Pedro 
Alvarez Holguin and Gomez de Tordo3'a v/ere celebrat- 
ed with great pomp, in the church which then received 
the dedication to San Cristova], in honor of Cristoval 
Vaca de Castro. Fray Tomas de San Martin, chaplain 
of the royal army, and afterward the first Bishop of 
Charcas, sang the Te Deuni, and performed the service. 

In the army of Vaca de Castro, besides the two war- 
riors who fell, were Vasco de Guevara the first gov- 
ernor of Guamanga; Alonzo de Alvarado, the con- 
queror of Chachapoyas, whose acquaintance we have 
already made ; Gomez de x\lvarado, the founder of 
Huanuco ; Lorenzo de Aldana, the governor of Quito ; 
Garcilasso de la Vega, Diego Centeno, and many other 
prominent names. They accompanied the ro)'al judge 
in his march to Cuzco, where he had a triumphal re- 
ception, assuming the title of governor of Peru, in 
accordance with the terms of his appointment. There 
was some hope that the extreme youth of Almagro the 
lad might have been a reason for sparing his life. 
But inexorable reasons of state prevailed. He was 
executed, and his bod}* was placed by the side of that 
of his father, in the church of La Merced at Cuzco. 

Vaca de Castro had to encounter another danger, 
which he overcame through his admirable diplomacy. 
Gonzalo, the last of the Pizarros, had returned to 



ii8 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Quito from his disastrous expedition into the Amazon- 
ian forests. Full of ambition and the love of power, 
he was surrounded by evil advisers, who persuaded 
him that he had a right to succeed his brother, the Mar- 
quis. The tact and courteous persuasion of Vaca de 
Castro saved him from rebellion at this time, and he 
was invited to come to Cuzco. The new governor 
induced him to retire to his rich inheritance in the pro- 
vince of Charcas, and rest after the fatigues and priva- 
tions of his late expedition. 



CHAPTER V 

RECEPTION OF THE "NEW LAWS" 

The treatment of the natives of the new world by 
their conquerors had become a serious question in the 
counsels of the Emperor Charles V. The good Bishop 
Las Casas, when he returned to Spain in 1538, pub- 
lished his famous book on the destruction of the native 
race of America. He protested against the natives 
being given to the Spaniards, in encomienda or vassalage 
for personal service. The emperor appointed a com- 
mittee composed of churchmen and law3^ers of the high- 
est position in 1542, to consider the whole subject. 
The result was the promulgation of what were called 
the "New Laws." 

I. After the death of the conquerors, the repartimientosoi Indians, 
given to them in encomienda, were not to pass to their heirs, but were 
to be placed under the king. All officers of the crown were to re- 
nounce their repartimientos at once, 

II. All encoinenderos in Peru, who had been engaged in the factious 
wars between the Pizarros and Almagros were to be deprived. 

III. Personal service of the natives was to be entirely abolished. 
The only right to be retained by the encotnenderos was a moderate 
tribute. 

A court of justice called the Royal Audience was 
created with a viceroy as president, and consisting of 
four "Oidores" or judges, to reside at Lima. There 



I20 A HISTORY OF PERU 

was no appeal from their decisions, except in civil 
suits of more than 10,000 pesos de oro, when there was 
an appeal to the king. 

The enforcement of the "New Laws' was entrusted 
to Blasco Nunez Vela, who was nominated the first 
viceroy of Peru. He was a native of Avila, who had 
served in several high posts with a reputation for in- 
tegrity, and was advanced in years. He was religious, 
severe, and haughty, but courteous and of a fine pres- 
ence. He accepted the dangerous office with these 
words — "I was born to do your majesty service, and I 
will do what your majesty commands." The emperor 
wrote to Vaca de Castro, ordering him to return home 
and take his seat in the Council of Castile, but to 
remain in Peru as long as the viceroy might need his 
advice. The "Oidores" were lawyers of eminence 
named Diego Cepeda, Lison de Tejada, Alvarez and 
Zarate. Agustin de Zarate, the historian, was ap- 
pointed accountant general of Peru. Lima became 
a bishopric, its first bishop being Geronimo de Lo- 
aysa. The "rascally friar" Valverde, first bishop of 
Cuzco, had been killed by the islanders of Puna, and 
a Franciscan named Juan Solano was appointed to 
succeed him. 

The viceroy, Blasco Nunez Vela, parted from his wife 
and children, whom he was never destined to see again, 
and, in company with his brother, sailed from San 
Lucar on the loth of November, 1543. Just as he was 
embarking he received orders to make strict inquisition 
into the conduct of Vaca de Castro, against whom 
grave accusations had arrived. The members of the 
Royal Audience went out with their president as far as 
Panama. Leaving orders to the judges to follow him, 
the viceroy embarked in a vessel that was ready to 



RECEPTION OE THE ^^NEW LAWS'' 121 

sail, and landed at Tumbez on the 4th of March; 
whence he sent orders to Vaca de Castro to give up 
charge of the government and proceed to Lima. He 
also issued orders for the good treatment of the na- 
tives, and set an example, in his march through the 
coast valleys, by allowing no native to be forced to 
carry a load. Nevertheless, the most alarming rumors 
were spread over the country, and the Spaniards be- 
lieved that he intended to deprive them of what they 
considered their rights, hardly won by desperate fight- 
ing. "If now he takes our property, to-morow he will 
take our lives, " they declared. But when he approached 
Lima he was received as became his rank and position. 
The new Bishop Loaysa and Vaca de Castro came 
out three leagues to meet him, while the clergy and 
municipality received him at the gates. He entered 
under a canopy of brocade carried by four magistrates 
in scarlet robes. Diego Centeno was sent with tran- 
quilizing messages to the citizens of Guamanga and 
Cuzco. 

Gonzalo Pizarro had been seized with a panic of 
alarm when the tenor of the "New Laws" was reported 
to him. His ambition was aroused by the receipt of 
numerous letters from encomenderos, entreating him to 
espouse their cause. He was told that the viceroy 
had threatened to cut off his head, and had declared 
that it was not just that Peru should be in the power 
of pig drivers and muleteers. Throwing prudence to 
the winds Gonzalo left Charcas and proceeded to Cuzco 
with a dozen friends. There he was proclaimed pro- 
curator general of Peru, and he attracted soldiers and 
citizens to his cause by lavish gifts and repeated assur- 
ances that he sought nothing for himself, but everything 
for the public good. He seized the artillery of Pedro 



122 A HISTORY OF PERU 

de Candia, which Vaca de Castro had left at Cuzco, 
and completely equipped a force of four hundred sol- 
diers ; the majority being mounted. From Arequipa 
came men and arms, and with them the old veteran Fran- 
cisco Carbajal. This far sighted soldier had foreseen 
the inevitable end of these troubles and intended to 
leave the country. He had sold his property and had 
even obtained a commission to act as an agent for the 
colonists in Spain, from Vaca de Castro. But he could 
not find a vessel to take him to Panama. To the first 
invitation of Gonzalo Pizarro he had replied that he 
was eighty years of age and wished to end his days in 
peace. But when a second request came he yielded 
unwillingly, accepting a place as Gonzalo's lieutenant. 
Nevertheless, many settlers in the interior listened to 
the message of Diego Centeno, and feared to oppose 
the king's representative. Even in Cuzco, Garcilasso 
de la Vega, Gabriel de Rojas, and other citizens fled to 
the coast to avoid the taint of treason. Others wav- 
ered. The revolution owed its success to the harsh- 
ness and the blunders of the unfortunate viceroy. He 
was resolved to obey his orders to the letter. He had 
no tact and no judgment. His most foolish act was 
the imprisonment of Vaca de Castro, who was sent on 
board a vessel at Callao, on suspicion that he favored 
the revolt. In the midst of these anxieties the oidores 
arrived from Panama, and immediately began to quar- 
rel with the vicero}^ ; and Cepeda, the senior judge, 
put himself in communication with the enemy. Hated 
as a tryant, and wholly incapable of dealing with 
the situation, the unhappy viceroy became irritable, 
and was subject to fits of ungovernable passion. Two 
of the nephews of the factor, Ulan Suarez de Carbajal, 
had left his house while he slept, and deserted. Hear- 



RECEPTION OF THE ''NEW LAWS'' 123 

ing this the viceroy sent for the factor accusing him of 
treason. An altercation followed, the viceroy stabbed 
him, ordered his servants to complete the murder, and 
buried the body secretly. This was on the 13th of Sep- 
tember. It was impossible to conceal the crime, and it 
met with universal reprobation. The wretched man 
feared to remain any longer at Lima, resolving to re- 
tire as far as Truxillo. He seized Francisca, the rich 
and beautiful daughter of Pizarro, and put her on 
board a ship, apparently as a sort of hostage. At 
length the Ro3^al Audience resolved to put him under 
restraint, and he was arrested by order of the judges. 
His brother in-law, who had command of the ships, 
was induced to land the daughter of the Marquis, and 
eventually he surrendered the ships. The viceroy was 
imprisoned on the island of San Lorenzo for some 
time, and eventually embarked for Panama with the 
licentiate Alvarez, who had orders to take him to Spain 
as a prisoner. But the judge, reflecting that the 
Spanish Court was very jealous of the authority of its 
representatives, and that his conduct might get him 
into trouble, informed the viceroy, after they had been 
a few days at sea, that he was free and at libert}^ to 
sail whither he pleased. 

Cepeda now assumed charge of the executive gov- 
ernment at Lima, leaving Tejada and Zarate to exer- 
cise their judicial functions. He sent letters to Gon- 
zalo Pizarro by Lorenzo de Aldana, suggesting that if he 
should recognize the authority of the Royal Audience, 
all would be well, and that he might safely return 
to his estates in Charcas. If he wished to visit Lima 
he might do so, attended by ten or a dozen friends. 
The answer was sudden and startling. Within a few- 
days old Francisco Carbajal appeared in Lima, seized 



124 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

three of the citizens who fled from Cuzco, and hung 
them on trees outside the town. There was no mis- 
taking the signification of this reply. Cepeda and the 
two other judges promptly recognized Gonzalo Pizarro 
as governor of Peru. The bishop and judges went 
out to meet him, and he made his triumphal entry into 
Lima on the 28th of October, 1544, preceded by the 
royal standard. The procession commenced with a 
crowd of natives dragging twenty pieces of artillery. 
These were followed by arquebusiers, and cavalry, 
forming together a body of close upon 1,200 men. 
Gonzalo rode at the head of his knights, wearing a 
richly brocaded tunic over a splendid suit of armor, 
and a cloak of cloth of gold. Plumes waved in his 
helmet, and riding a spirited charger he looked every 
inch a conqueror. The streets and windows were 
crowded, the bells rang, and he was received with often 
repeated acclamations. He took the oath before the 
judges, and his government was formally inaugurated. 
The moment that Gonzalo usurped power, he felt 
his danger and insecurity: Garcilasso, and others who 
had fled from him at Cuzco, gave in their adherence to 
save their lives. But many more escaped and con- 
cealed themselves. Few approved, while many feared 
the consequences of disloyalty. The late excellent 
governor, Vaca de Castro, induced the captain of 
a ship at Callao to take him to Panama. On his ar- 
rival in Spain he was accused of avarice and tyranny 
by some of the enemies he had made in Peru, and was 
kept in prison for seven years, while his cause was 
pending. There were fifty-two serious charges against 
him, but eventually he was fully acquitted in 1556, re- 
ceived some compensation, and was restored to his 
office of councillor of Castile. He died in 1562. 



RECEPTION OF THE '^NEW LAWS'' 125 

The viceroy landed at Tumbez, strong in the justice 
of his cause and ready to sacrifice his life at the call 
of duty. Any other man might have succeeded. With 
Blasco Nunez Vela disaster was a certainty. About 
fifty loyal men joined him from San Miguel and other 
northern towns. He advanced to Quito where he was 
joined by Sebastian de Benalcazar, then governor of 
Popayan, and by Francisco Hernandez Giron who had 
taken a leading part in the conquest of New Granada. 
His forces soon amounted to five hundred men. 

Gonzalo Pizarro took active steps to meet the dan- 
ger. He despatched Hernando Bachicao in a small 
vessel from Callao, to seize every vessel on the coast 
as far as Panama. He performed this service success- 
fully, but with needless violence and cruelty. Leaving 
Lorenzo de Aldana in command of Lima, Gonzalo 
and Carbajal set out in pursuit of the viceroy, follow- 
ing closely upon his heels. Reaching Quito they 
found that the fugitives had continued their retreat to 
Popayan. Blasco Nunez Vela had with him an impor- 
tant hostage in the person of the child Francisco, a son 
of Gonzalo Pizarro by a native woman. With over- 
weening confidence the viceroy, having collected more 
recruits at Popayan, resolved to march against the 
rebels. Gonzalo took up a strong position on the 
banks of the river Guallabamba. Benalcazar and the 
viceroy attempted to outflank him, and entered Quito, 
which they found empty and without resources of an}^ 
kind. There was no alternative left for them but an 
open attack. Their force consisted of one hundred and 
forty horse and two hundred and fifty foot soldiers ; 
but the rebels were superior in infantry and were better 
armed. The battle was fought on the i8th of June, 
1546, and although it was a desperate hand to hand 



126 A HISTORY OF PERU 

combat, it was not of long duration. The viceroy was 
killed early in the day and both Benalcazar and Giron 
were severely wounded. Two judges of the Ro3^al 
Audience took opposite sides. Alvarez was for the 
viceroy, while Cepeda fought like a common soldier 
on the side of Gonzalo Pizarro. More than a hundred 
royalists were killed in this battle of Anaquito, and 
the rebellion was triumphant. The ill-fated viceroy was 
severe to cruelty, hot headed and narrow-minded. But 
he was 103/al to the heart's core, devoted to his duty 
as he understood it, and in his last da3^s he displayed 
heroic constancy and valor. The judge, Alvarez, died 
a few da5's after the battle. Benalcazar and Giron 
were allowed to return to Popa3^an. 

Francisco Carbajal, on the receipt of the news that 
Diego Centeno was in arms for the vicero3^ i^ the 
south, had been despatched against him some time 
before the battle of Anaquito. Mustering two hundred 
men at Lima he crossed the cordillera to Guamanga, 
passed through Cuzco, and began to hunt for Centeno 
in the Collao, with an energy and rapidity that appears 
almost miraculous to those who are acquainted with 
the country. He had always despised Centeno, who 
now fled before him, but was followed and hunted about 
with merciless energy, and every fugitive captured by 
the ruthless old man was put to death, often under cir- 
cumstances of great cruelty. At length Centeno fled 
to the port of Arequipa, but he was unable to find a ves- 
sel to take him away, and he was driven to the extrem- 
ity of hiding himself in a cave of the maritime cordillera. 
Having crossed the Andes six times, passed his nights 
in the open air in all weather, alike insensible to the 
cold of the puna and the heat of the coast deserts, this 
marvelous old man succeeded in stamping out every 



RECEPTION OF THE ''NEW LAWS'' 127 

sign of loyalty in the southern provinces of Peru. 
Many believed that he had a familiar spirit which 
carried him through the air in spite of his immense 
weight, and he was long known as the Demon of the 
Andes. 

During the government of Gonzalo Pizarro several 
very rich silver mines were discovered in Charcas, and 
some rich veins of gold near the southern borders of 
Quito. In order to facilitate the working of gold in 
the northern districts, Gonzalo founded the city of 
Loxa, which was the best and most lasting monument 
of his brief rule. Agriculture revived, and the mining 
industry became active and even prolific under the 
able administration of the last of the Pizarros, while 
the colonists were made content by unstinted grants. 

For a short interval of peace his power seemed fully 
established, and his popularit}^ was unbounded. Car 
bajal, who never advised half measures, Cepeda who 
had sinned past forgiveness, Bachicao and Puelles 
urged their chief to declare himself independent, and 
to be crowned king of Peru. 

The news from the land of the Incas caused the 
greatest consternation among the councillors of the 
peninsula. Philip was at the time acting as regent 
for his father Charles V. The rebellion must be re- 
pressed, but the calamity that was most felt was that 
instead of receiving gold and silver from Peru, that 
colon}^ would entail heavy expenditures. It was thought 
desirable to entrust the work of pacification to a capa- 
ble and astute ecclesiastic rather than to a soldier. 
Pedro de la Gasca had been distinguished at Salaman- 
ca, and he had displayed ability as an inquisitor, in 
his investigations connected with obscure cases of 
heresy at Valencia. A successful inquisitor might be 



128 A HISTORY OF PERU 

relied upon for astute cunning, as well as for pitiless 
cruelty. He was ugly and deformed. He received 
extraordinary powers with the modest title of Presi- 
dent of the Royal Audience. Alonzo de Alvarado had 
returned to Spain, and he was appointed to accompany 
the new president with the title of Marshal. Pascual 
de Andagoya, who had obtained the first reliable tid- 
ings of the empire of the Incas, and Pedro Hernandez 
Paniagua went with the president as councillors. The 
licentiate Cianca was selected to fill any vacancy in 
the Audience, for the conduct of the former judges was 
as yet unreported. Gasca sailed from Spain on the 
26th of May, 1546. He came to Panama as a humble 
and religious person who had been commissioned to 
establish peace, and revoke the "New Laws." A letter 
was sent to Gonzalo Pizarro from the emperor, and 
another from Gasca, which seemed to grant forgiveness 
for the past, but requiring him to submit entirely to 
the authority of the president. A letter was also ad- 
dressed to Cepeda, calling upon him to comply with 
the orders of the king. 

Gonzalo was at Lima, and his only reall}^ able and 
far-seeing councillor was not with him. Cepeda was 
against admitting the president. Gonzalo himself had 
tasted the joys of power. He had little knowledge of 
men, and believed in his popularity and in the false pro- 
mises he received. He also rightly suspected that the 
soft words of Gasco were intended to conceal designs 
of a very different complexion. Paniagua, an old man 
who was as cunning as his master, was sent with the let- 
ters to Lima and had long interviews with Gonzalo and 
his councillors. When he returned to Panama his report 
convinced Gasca of two things, that Peru could only 
be taken by force, but that few of Gonzalo's supporters 



RECEPTION OE THE ''NEW LAWS'' 129 

would continue to be faithful to him, in defiance of 
the authority of their king. In fact the desertions 
had already commenced. Help came from other gov- 
ernments, the fleet of Gonzalo Pizarro was betrayed, 
and by the beginning of 1547, Gasca had assembled at 
Panama a force of a thousand men, and twenty-two 
ships. Lorenzo de Aldana was one of the deserters, 
and he was sent in advance with three hundred men in 
four ships. He was to sail along the coast, and send 
letters on shore at every port, calling upon all loyal 
men to join the president. This measure caused a 
formidable reaction against the rebels. 

A resolution was formed to retire to the south of Peru 
and on the 17th of July, 1547, Gonzalo left Lima, and 
took the road to Arequipa. Desertions were numer- 
ous, and of the five hundred men who had marched 
out of Lima only three hundred answered to the mus- 
ter roll when the rebel chief reached Arequipa. One 
captain was fai-thful to him at Cuzco, and Juan de 
Acosta came thence with a small reinforcement. Still 
his cause began to look desperate ; and he thought of 
retreating to Rio de la Plata or to Chile. Centeno 
was once more in arms in the Collao. 

In May, 1547, Gasca had landed at Tumbez, where 

all the loyal captains were waiting to receive him. 

He ordered that all the soldiers who wished to 

serve their king were to assemble in the valley of 

Xauxa. He here received an assurance that Centeno 

and his loyal troops in the Collao would easily be able 

to dispose of the rebels under Gonzalo and Carbajal. 

But this promise was not fulfilled. Gonzalo advanced 

from Arequipa in search of the royalists, and found their 

camp at Huarina, at the southeast angle of Lake Titi- 

caca, on the 26th of October. Centeno had over a 
9 



I30 A HISTORY OF PERU 

thousand men, while the forces of Gonzalo barsly num- 
bered five hundred. Centeno himself was suffering 
from a pain in his side, and was in a litter at some 
distance from the field. Carbajal relied upon the dis- 
cipline of his infantry, and on the dexterity of his ar- 
quebusiers, each of whom had two or three guns which 
had been abandoned by the deserters. His cavalry was 
far inferior to that of Centeno. The indefatigable vet- 
eran cheered his men by short and witty little speeches, 
while Gonzalo sat at the head of his horsemen, mag- 
nificently dressed in a tunic of crimson velvet. Both 
armies were drawn up on a plain, separated by a dis- 
tance of six hundred paces. Centeno's men rushed on 
in a confused charge ; while Carbajal stood firm, order- 
ing his arquebusiers to aim a little below the breast and 
fire when the enemy was well within range. This order 
was obeyed with the regularity of a machine, and the 
infantry of Centeno broke and fled. His cavalry was 
more successful at first, but when, after putting the few 
horsemen of Gonzalo to flight, they returned to charge 
the infantry of Carbajal in- the rear, they encountered a 
forest of pikes and a galling fire. They fled in all di- 
rections, and the victory of Gonzalo was complete ; but 
most of the fugitives escaped, as the rebel chief needed 
cavalry to follow up his success. Centeno changed his 
litter for a horse and galloped off, but three hundred 
of his followers were slain. The wounded were frozen 
to death during the night, and thirty prisoners, includ- 
ing a priest who was a brother of the bishop of Cuzco, 
were murdered in cold blood by the stout old Demon 
of the Andes. Trusting to the effect that his victory 
would have on waverers, Gonzalo marched to Cuzco, 
and was well received by the citizens, with some ex- 
ceptions. Among the dissentients there was one lady, 



RECEPTION OF THE ^'NEW LAWS'' 131 

named Maria Calderon, whose husband had been put 
to flight at Huarina, and whose discretion was mastered 
by her anger. She went about denouncing Gonzalo as 
a tyrant. Now this lady stood in a peculiar relation- 
ship to old Carbajal, being his comadre, that is to say 
they were both sponsors to the same child. "Little 
coinadre,'' her old friend said to her, "if you do not 
stop your abuse you must be killed." She went on 
scolding as before, so he came to her and said — "My 
co?nadre, I have come to hang you. " She never be- 
lieved he was in earnest, but when ihe dead body 
was hanging from a window the old demon said to it — 
"My dear little comadre, if you do not profit by this 
warning I do not know what I shall do." 

Gasca was steadily marching toward Cuzco, and re- 
ceiving reinforcements and adherents. Pedro de Val- 
divia joined him from Chile, and when he reached the 
valley of Andahuaylas, the Inca Paullu arrived with a 
native contingent to assist in bringing up supplies. 
Here Diego Centeno and other fugitives from Huarina 
made their appearance. The bishops of Lima and 
Cuzco with numerous monks, and the oidor Cianca 
gave an air of authority to the camp, and the army 
had swollen to nearly 2,000 men. The march was 
continued, the river Apurimac was crossed with some 
difficulty, and the royal army approached the plain of 
Sacsahuana. 

There had been divided counsels at Cuzco. Old 
Carbajal saw that Gasca was too strong for them, and 
that a disastrous rout was inevitable. He strongly 
advised a retreat with five hundred well armed and 
disciplined men to Charcas. Cepeda wished to enter 
into negotiations. But Gonzalo, elated by his tri- 
umph at Huarina, was resolved to fight ; believing that 



132 A HISTORY OF PERU 

audacity would make up for numbers. He led the 
whole of his forces to the plain of Sacsahuana, where 
the royalists were formed in good order, awaiting an 
attack. It was the 8th of April, 1548. Just as the 
battle was expected to commence, Garcilasso, followed 
by Cepeda and many others, deserted to the enemy. 
Then followed complete disorganization. The pike- 
men and arquebusiers surrendered, and the cavalr}^ 
went over without striking a blow. Gonzalo looked 
on in despair. He said to Juan Acosta "What shall we 
do, brother Juan?" 

"Sir," replied the captain, "let us charge them and 
die like Romans.' "Better to die like Christians, " re- 
plied Gonzalo and, in company with Acosta and a few 
others, he rode across the plain and surrendered to the 
sergeant major of the royal -Axxv^y. The pitiless inquis- 
itor insulted the gallant warrior, but Diego Centeno, to 
whose charge he was committed, treated him with cour- 
tesy and respect. Meanwhile old Carbajal had watch- 
ed the desertions with no surprise, but some amuse- 
ment. He kept humming two lines of an old song : — 

"These, my little hairs, mother! 

One by one the wind blew them away."* 

When he found himseli alone, he put spurstohishorse 
to gallop away. But the animal was old and tired, and 
fell into a stream^ under the old man's weight. Here he 
was seized and treated with great brutality b}^ his cap- 
tors. He was saved from these indignities by Centeno, 
but he could not restrain his caustic wit even then. 
"Who is your worship to whom I owe so much," he 
said. The knight replied — "Do 3^ou not know me, I am 
Diego Centeno." "Oh Lord!" said the incorrigible old 

*"Estos mis cabellicos Madre, 
Uno a uno los llevi el aire." 



RECEPTION OE THE ^^NEW LAWS'' 133 

joker, "as I have never seen anything but your back 
before, I did not know you when I saw your face". 
He was calm and silent, however, when he was in- 
sulted by Gasca and actually struck in the face by the 
mean cur who was bishop of Cuzco. A court martial, 
consisting of the marshal Alvarado and the judge 
Cianca, sat on the field of battle and condemned 
Gonzalo Pizarro, Carbajal, and all their captains to 
death. Pizarro was to be beheaded, Carbajal to be 
hanged and quartered. 

After passing some time with a confessor, Gonzalo 
Pizarro came out of the tent, for execution. He was 
in the prime of life, about forty-two years of age, tall 
and handsome, with fine manly face and black beard 
and e3'es ; he was dressed magnificentl5^ He was to 
die, because he had merited the love of his country- 
men, and much sympathy was felt for him. The feel- 
ing of pity was unknown to the clerical inquisitor; 
and his prisoner was beheaded. His body was buried 
in the church of La Merced at Cuzco near the tomb 
of the Almagros, the head being reserved for further in- 
s^ult. He left a son Francisco who died young, and a 
daughter Inez who went to Spain to vindicate her 
father's memor}^ but failed in her efforts, and returned 
to Peru where she made a good marriage. "In Peru," 
writes Lorente, "men had not forgotten Gonzalo's 
marvelous deeds, his brilliant gifts, nor the amiable 
character of the man who died on the scaffold for hav- 
ing undertaken, at an unlucky time, a grand enterprise. " 
Carbajal was eighty-four. As they dragged him to 
the scaffold in a pannier he said — "The baby in a 
cradle and the old man in a cradle," and he died with 
a joke on his lips. 

The ignoble conqueror, Pedro de la Gasca, entered 



134 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

Cuzco in triumph on the nth of April, 1548; and com- 
menced work that was more congenial to him than 
fighting. Many prisoners were condemned to death. 
The tongue of one was torn out first, because he had 
spoken disrespectfully of the emperor. Others were 
mutilated and flogged, and the goods of all the friends 
of Pizarro were confiscated. The cowardly priest 
struck Cepeda a blow in the face and sent him pris- 
oner to Spain, where he died in prison. Diego Cen- 
teno died suddenly after a banquet, with suspicion of 
poison. The colonists had little cause to rejoice at 
the change of masters. At length, sated with blood, 
Gasca left Cuzco and went to a small village in the 
neighborhood, with Archbishop Loaysa of Lima, to 
arrange the distribution of grants of land and Indians 
among his followers. He retired into this seclusion 
to avoid the importunities of friends. Having com- 
pleted his work, he sent to announce his awards at 
Cuzco, and they caused a howl of rage and disappointed 
greed. He himself went down to Lima by the least 
frequented route, and wh^n a positive order from the 
emperor arrived that all personal service from the 
Indians should be prohibited, he suspended its publi- 
cation until he was safe out of Peru. In January, 1550, 
the president Gasca sailed for Panama, leaving the 
country in the greatest confusion, and all the most 
difficult administrative points to be settled by others. 
He left the government in the hands of the judges of 
the Royal Audience. Andres de Cianca was president, 
the others being Melchor Bravo de Saravia, Hernando 
de Santillan, and Pedro Maldonado. The judges were 
in charge of the executive from January, 1550, to the 
23rd of September, 1551, when Don Antonio de Men- 
doza arrived from Mexico as second viceroy to Peru. 



RECEPTION OF THE ^^NEW LAWS'' 135 

He was a statesman of high rank and great experience, 
and the judges worked harmoniously under him. It 
was his duty to promulgate the royal order prohibiting 
the enforced labor of natives, fully anticipating seri- 
ous discontents and troubles which he was resolved to 
meet and overcome. But his premature death at Lima 
on the 2ist of July, 1552, left the country once more 
under the rule of the judges, who had to meet a storm 
which would sorely test their administrative abilities. 
Mendoza was remembered as "the good viceroy." The 
slayer of Gonzalo Pizarro took care to return to Spain 
with a large supply of gold, which ensured him a 
cordial reception from Charles V. He received a 
bishopric and died in 1567. 

The promulgation of the royal order, depriving the 
conquerors of the personal services of the natives, added 
to the discontent caused by Gasca's injudicious awards, 
produced a storm of reprobation. Discontent was seeth- 
ing everywhere. It broke out in overt acts in Char- 
cas, and the rebellion was sternly suppressed by the 
marshal, Alvarado. Then it was that Francisco Her- 
nandez Giron placed himself at the head of the move- 
ment. This cavalier had hitherto been conspicuous for 
his loyalty. He fought for Blasco Nunez Vela at 
Anaquito, and was with Gasca at Sacsahuaman. But he 
was extremely discontented with the share of the spoils 
awarded to him by the astute inquisitor, declaring 
that it was far below his merits, although it included 
the rich plain of Sacsahuana. He matured his plot 
at Cuzco. There was a wedding between Alonzo de 
Loaysa, a nephew of the archbishop of Lima, and a 
young lady named Maria de Castilla. The guests were 
assembled at supper when the door flew open, and 
Giron appeared wrapped in a cloak, with a drawn 



136 A HIS TOR Y OF PER U 

sword, followed by a crowd of conspirators. Tomas 
Vasquez was at the end of the street with a body of 
cavalry. The wedding guests sprang from their chairs 
but Giron told them not to fear, as he only came to 
arrest the corregidor of Cuzco. There was some re- 
sistance to give time for the corregidor to escape into 
the drawing-room, and take refuge with the ladies. 
Then the guests made a rush for the windows, dropped 
into the yard, and climbed over the back wall. The 
accountant Caceres begged for the lives of the correg- 
idor and his friends and they surrendered. The con- 
spirators then paraded the streets, shouting for liberty 
and justice, and Giron assumed command of the city. 
Many respectable citizens fled to Lima, but soldiers 
crowded to his standard, and he soon had a considera- 
ble force. He proclaimed that his only object was the 
public good, and to induce the king to listen to the 
prayers of the colonists. He wrote to the cities and 
principal captains of Peru, justif5ang his proceedings 
and explaining his object, which was not rebellion 
against the king, but a ~ restoration of affairs to the 
state in which they were before the obnoxious royal 
ordinance was promulgated. He also wrote to the 
Royal Audience at Lima, entreating the judges not to 
be disquieted, because he only sought for justice and 
redress of grievances. 

The corregidor of Cuzco, Gil Ramirez de Avalos, was 
allowed to depart, but the accountant Caceres was put 
to death. Tomas Vasquez was then sent, with a body of 
cavalry, to secure Arequipa, while two other captains 
were sent with troops to Guamanga. 

The Royal Audience received the news of the rebel- 
lion and resolved upon taking meaures to put it down. 
But a dispute arose among the judges as to which of 



RECEPTION OE THE ^'NEW LAWS'' 137 

them should command the army in the field. Words 
ran high. Eventually the command was given to the 
archbishop Loaysa, with whom the cidor Santillan 
was associated. The marshal Alvarado prepared to 
march on Cuzco from Charcas, and was joined by Juan 
de Saavedra, and other loyal captains. Giron entered 
Guamanga on the 27th of January, 1554, and then began 
his march to the coast over the snowy passes of Huar- 
ochiri, reaching the valley of Lurin south of Lima. 
After all the disputes, the whole of the judges took 
the field with their army, consisting of four hundred and 
fifty pikemen, five hundred arquebusiers, three hun- 
dred horses and fourteen field pieces. It was encamped 
at Surco with a few miles of desert separating it from 
the rebels at Lurin. Giron did not dare to attack the 
judges, and retreated to Yea, followed by a detach- 
ment of royalists under Captain Meneses. Giron 
turned upon his pursuers and defeated them on the 
little oasis of Villacuri, in the desert between Pisco and 
Yea. He then continued his retreat to Nasca. The 
whole army of the judges had followed the advanced 
guard under Meneses. But where so many commanded 
and none were military men, all concert was impossi- 
ble. The archbishop quarrelled with his judicial 
colleague, and they returned to Lima. Meanwhile the 
marshal Alvarado assembled a respectable force at 
Le Paz, and, accompanied by the licentiate Polo de 
Ondagardo, he entered Cuzco on the 30th of March, 
1554. Continuing his search for Giron he made his 
way to Parinacochas in the mountains above Nasca, in 
which valley Giron rested until the 8th of Ma}'. 

The credulous rebel had with him a Moorish witch 
and several soothsayers. He also pretended that he 
was attended by a mysterious being which knew men's 



138 A HISTORY OF PERU 

intentions. He left Nasca and advanced over the Cor- 
dillera to Lucanas. A few days afterward Alvarado 
and Giron were within a short distance of each other. 
Themarshal had i, 100 men, of whom three hundred were 
arquebusiers, and two hundred and fifty horse. He made 
each man carry food to last three days, and march 
over many leagues of wild mountainous country, cov- 
ered with snow and swampy ground. At last they 
reached a position whence they obtained intelligence 
that Giron was encamped at a place called Chuquinga, 
four leagues distant. 

Giron pitched his camp at Chuquinga, in the strong- 
est position he could find ; an artificial terrace with a 
high wall in front, and only two approaches. On the 
other side a profound ravine descended to the river of 
Abancay. The marshal ordered one hundred and fifty 
picked arquebusiers under Juan Ramon to attack, 
and the rest to follow. The trumpet sounded on the 
morning of Trinity Sunday, the 20th of May. The 
chosen band came down to the river and opened fire, 
which was returned from behind rocks. The marshal 
withdrew his men to more sheltered positions after a 
heavy loss. Next day an advance was ordered in force. 
The troops rushed into the river, which was more than 
breast high, but they could not form on the other side 
in the face of an active enemy, and many were killed 
as they landed, including most of the officers. The 
marshal recalled the remnant of his soldiers and tried 
to rally them, on which Giron marched against him, 
flushed with victory and completed the route. Alva- 
rado was wounded, but he escaped with Polo de Onde- 
gardo and some others, leaving on the field seventy 
killed, and two hundred and eighty wounded. Giron 
returned in triumph to Cuzco to collect clothing for 



RECEPTION OF THE "JVEIV LA WS'' 139 

his men, seize all the treasure to pay his troops, melt 
down the church bells for artillery. He stripped the 
women to their shifts, in order to send clothing to the 
camp. The marshal Alvarado reached Nasca, whence 
he wrote a letter to the Royal Audience dated May 
27th, 1554, reporting his defeat. He was profoundly 
mortified, and sank into deep melancholy, dying two 
years afterward. 

All was bustle and preparation at Lima when the 
disastrous news arrived. The oidor Altamirano was to 
remain at the capital but the other three judges de- 
termined to march at the head ot the army, Pablo de 
Meneses going before them with the royal standard. 
They reached Guamanga in August. The judges had 
quarreled a good deal on the road, the altercations 
proceeding briskly on level ground, but only breaking 
out spasmodically, or ceasing altogether when ascend- 
ing the mountains. On reaching Abancay they heard 
that Giron was enjoying himself in the lovely valley 
of Yucay, with his charming wife Dona Mencia Alma- 
raz, daughter of the royal treasurer. Meneses formed 
a plan to surprise him, but he fell back up the valley 
to Urcos, when the judges entered Cuzco. 

Giron crossed the pass of Vilcanota and entered the 
basin of Lake Titicaca. He entrenched himself at 
Pucara, a perpendicular rock rising out of the plain, 
just as Gibraltar rises out of the sea. The judges 
continued to march in pursuit, encountered a heavy 
snow storm on the pass, and encamped before the rock. 
Giron fired a gun from the height which sent a shot 
into the middle of the royal camp. Giron hoped that 
the royal troops would attack him, as they had done 
at Chuquinga. But the legal mind did not see the 
matter in that light. A close blockade was established. 



I40 A HISTORY OF PERU 

At length, on the 7th of October, Giron determined to 
make a night attack, but his plan had been betrayed 
and he was repulsed. Next day there was a skirmish, 
when Tomas Vasquez deserted to the enemy. Others 
were wavering, so Giron resolved upon flight. His 
wife was to remain in charge of a friar who was to 
deliver her up to the oidor Saravia, an old friend. 
Husband and wife had a heartrending farewell, and 
Giron galloped away in the dead of night. Troops 
under Juan Tello were sent in chase, but it was a very 
long one. The fugitive was finally surprised in the 
valley of Xauxa, and brought to Lima on the 6th of 
December, 1554- He was lodged in prison, sentenced to 
be beheaded, and died like a brave man and a Chris- 
tian. 

The head of Giron was put in an iron cage, and 
nailed on a board in the great square of Lim.a, by the 
sides of the heads of Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisco 
de Carbajal. Dona Mencia came to Lima with her 
mother Dona Leonor Portocarrero, broken hearted. 
She could find neither rest nor consolation while her 
beloved husband's head was exposed to the touch of 
the foul turkey buzzards and to the rotting mists. 
She watched as did Rizpah, daughter of Aya. At 
length, after ten long years, a devoted friend secretly 
took down all three heads in the dead of night, and 
they were buried in the cloister of a convent. Mother 
and daughter then founded an Augustine beateria, 
which afterwards became a nunnery, of which Dona 
Mencia was abbess at the time of her death. 

Thus ended the long and terrible story of the civil 
wars of the conquerors of Peru. 



CHAPTER VI 

SETTLEMENT OF THE COUNTRY 

The story of the conquest, and of the civil wars which 
followed it, is almost bewildering after the peaceful 
narrative of Inca civilization. The phantasmagoria 
of battles and murders follows so close on the fall of 
the Incas. It is like a dance of murderous bacchanals 
over a beautiful corpse. In the excitement of it our 
attention is almost wholly withdrawn from the sad 
fate of the children of the land. At length the orgies 
of blood were to cease. In vain had the Spanish 
government sent out learned lawyers, and astute in- 
quisitors to establish order in Peru. All these attempts 
had not only failed, but had given rise to fresh com- 
plications. Charles V. now came to the wise decision 
of entrusting the onerous duty to a nobleman of the 
highest rank, and of giving his delegate a free hand. 
It was not an appointment which would be much cov- 
eted by the emperor's courtiers ; and two noblemen had 
already declined the honor, when it was accepted, 
from a sense of duty and with some reluctance, by 
Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, Marquis of Can- 
ete. Native of the city Cuenca, this statesman was 
a scion of the noblest house of Castile, alike distin- 
guished in arms and in letters. He was a gentleman of 
mature years and great experience of affairs. He was 



142 A HISTORY OF PERU 

appointed viceroy of Peru for six j^ears with a salary 
of 40,000 ducats. He studied the condition of the 
country with great care and made a report to the em- 
peror on the polic}^ he intended to adopt, in a letter 
dated at Seville on the gth of Ma}-, 1555. He found 
that there were then about 8,000 Spaniards in Peru, 
of whom 489 had grants of land and Indians, and a 
thousand were employed officiall}', or on their own es- 
tates. A large proportion of the rest desired to live in 
idleness. The Marquis of Canete proposed to expel 
some of the dangerous characters from the countr}^, to 
employ others on expeditions into unknown regions, 
and he submitted that no more Spaniards should be 
permitted to go to Peru without good cause assigned. 
The emperor, in a letter to his daughter the governess 
Juana, dated in December of the same year, gave his 
approval to the polic}' thus sketched out b}^ the new 
viceroy. 

The marquis landed at Paj^ta and, traveling along 
the coast, entered Lima, and assumed office with un- 
precedented state and solemnit}' on the 29th of June, 
1556. He was a capable and resolute statesman and 
was quite determined to put an end to sedition. His 
first order was that no Spaniard should leave the dis- 
trict where he lived, without permission from the au- 
thorities and good cause shown. He then investigated 
the conduct of the judges of the Ro^^al Audience, who 
had been careering all over the country at the head of 
armies in the field, instead of adjudicating cases at 
Lima. He reported that several were hostile to each 
other, that they lived in such discord that all peace was 
hopeless, and against three he made grave accusa- 
tions. He requested that they might be recalled. He 
found that the corregidors, or governors of districts, 



SETTLEMENT OF THE COUNTRY 143 

maintained quantities of idle soldiers, waiting for op- 
portunities of mischief; and that the peace of the 
country was endangered by their immorality and ex- 
cesses. He kept all the artillery in the country under 
his own eye, ordering guns to be seized and brought 
to him wherever they could be found. He also organ- 
ized a permanent guard of four hundred arquebusiers. 

Having made these preparations the Marquis of 
Caiiete began the work of vigorously stamping out the 
last embers of sedition, without much scruple as to 
the means. He first sent for all the principal settlers 
of turbulent antecedents. They came to Lima joyfully, 
expecting that they were going to receive repartimientos. 
Among them were the most notorious disturbers of the 
peace in the late civil wars. They were disarmed, and 
shipped off from Callao, either to Panama for Spain or 
to Chile. Tomas Vasquez, the lieutenant of Giron who 
had deserted him at Pucara, was beheaded, although 
he had received a pardon from the judges. This was 
followed by a general order to the corregidors to seize 
and execute any turbulent or dangerous persons in their 
districts. One old captain, named Martin de Robles, 
was beheaded for having taken part in the deposition 
of Blasco Nunez Vela, although he had been pardoned 
by Gasca,and guaranteed an unmolested life. The insup- 
portable anarchy of the previous twenty years was thus 
completely and finally stamped out. 

The viceroy was accompanied by his vice-queen and 
family, and for the first time there was a viceregal 
court, forming a centre to the society of Lima, sur- 
rounded by a certain provincial splendor. The gov- 
ernment house was now called a palace, and the vice- 
roy was provided with a body-guard consisting of one 
hundred and fifty gentlemen lancers with allowances for 



144 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

arms and horses. Among the measures he adopted 
for the good of the country was the assembling together 
of dispersed families so as to form communities which 
afterward became towns. In this way Cuenca was 
founded in the government of Quito, Santa on the 
Peruvian coast, and Canete in the fertile coast valley 
of Huarco. In 1556, on the abdication of Charles V., 
the opportunity was taken of the proclamation of Phil- 
ip II. to exhibit viceregal splendor fn a gorgeous 
csremon}^ The Marquis of Canete employed such of 
the turbulent spirits as remained in Peru on hazardous 
expeditions of discovery. Several parties were des- 
patched into the forests of the montana. Most famous 
among these was the enterprise of Pedro de Ursua, 
who was ordered to fit out a flotilla on the Huallaga, 
to follow the route of Orellana and descend the great 
river of the Amazon to its mouth. The story of the 
murder of Ursua by mutineers, and of the voyage of 
the tyrant Aguirre forms one of the most thrilling epi- 
sodes in the whole wonderful narrative of Spanish dis- 
covery. But Chile was the great theatre for the martial 
spirits of those days. After the fall of Gonzalo Pizarro, 
the conqueror of Chile, Pedro de Valdivia,had returned 
to his government in 1549, entered upon a desperate 
conflict with the Araucanian Indians,and met his death 
at their hands in December, 1553. The viceroy then 
appointed his son, Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, a 
youth bareh' twenty-two years of age, to be governor 
of Chile. He sailed from Callao with seven hundred 
men, and among his officers was Alonzo de Ercilla, 
whose epic poem records the events of the famous Ar- 
aucanian war, in the south of Chile. The young Men- 
doza disgraced it by cruelty to his prisoners, but he 
established the colony on a firm footing, and soon 



SETTLEMENT OF THE COUNTRY 145 

after his departure, in 1561, a Royal Audience was 
instituted in Chile, with Dr. Melchor Bravo de Sar- 
avia as its first president. The captain general of 
Chile continued to be under the orders of the viceroy 
of Peru. 

The Marquis of Cafiete was anxious to conciliate the 
native population, and above all to induce the Inca to 
swear allegiance to the Spanish crown. After the death 
of Manco a small native court, surrounded by a few 
faithful adherents, continued to maintain some state at 
Viticos, in the recesses of the Vilcabamba mountains. 

Manco left three sons named Sayri Tupac, Cusi 
Titu Yupanqui, and Tupac Amaru; and a daughter 
named MariaTupac Usca, who was married to one of 
the conquerors, a Basque named Pedro Ortiz de Orue. 
Sayri Tupac was now the rightful Inca, and reigned 
independently at Viticos. Several members of the 
Incarial family had, however, become thoroughly His- 
panicized. Paullu, the brother of Manco Inca, had 
long devoted himself to the Spanish cause. He was 
baptized as Don Cristoval, and allowed to live in the 
palace of Colcampata overlooking Cuzco, where he died 
in May, 1549, leaving a son Carlos, whose son was 
Melchior Carlos Inca. Several Inca princesses had 
married Spanish knights, and a number of half caste 
youths were growing up in the principal cities of 
Peru, Vv^ho formed links between the Incas and their 
conquerors. There was a school at Cuzco where they 
were educated, and the son of Garcilasso de la Vega, 
by a native princess, recorded many anecdotes of his 
schooldays, and the names of his schoolfellows, when 
he composed the history of his mother's family in 
after years. In 1558 the Curacas, or native chiefs, 
who proved their rights by descent before the Royal 



146 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Audience, were allowed to exercise jurisdiction as mag- 
istrates. 

But Sayri Tupac still held out. The Marquis of 
Canete sent an embassy to him, consisting of the his- 
torian Juan de Betanzos, a Quichua scholar, and the 
Inca's aunt, Beatiz Nusta, wife of the good knight 
Mancia Sierra de Leguizamo. The}^ persuaded him 
to exchange his abode in the wild solitudes of Vilca- 
bamba, for a pension and a comfortable residence. He 
proceeded to Lima to swear allegiance, while his 
brothers still remained in safet}', with many faithful 
adherents. The viceroy received the rightful sover 
eign of the country at Lima with all honor, granted 
him an adequate pension and the valley of Yucay, and 
conferred on him the title of Adelantado. He renounced 
his sovereignty in exchange for these concessions, and 
when he attested tlie documents, he took up the gilded 
fringe of the table cloth at which he was sitting, and 
said — "All this cloth and its fringe were mine, and now 
the}^ give me a thread of it for my sustenance and that 
of all my house." Returning to Cuzco, amidst demon- 
strations of respect from Spaniards and natives, he was 
baptized under the name of Diego, his wife Cusi Huar- 
cay receiving that of Maria. Retiring to Yucay, the 
Inca Sayri Tupac sank into deep melanchol}'^, and died 
after about two years. He left a daughter who was 
married to Don Martin Garcia de Lo3^ola, a nephew 
of the Saint and a distinguished officer in the Chilean 
v^ar. 

The Marquis of Canete had received a promise that 
he should have a free hand, and that he should receive 
steady support from home if he succeeded in restoring 
order to Peru. His measures were strong and severe, 
and completely successful. The return he received 



SETTLEMENT OE THE COUNTRY 147 

was that Philip 11. listened to the complaint of ban- 
ished Spaniards, was induced to believe that such 
vigor was not conducive to the royal interests, allowed 
some of the bad characters to return, and determined 
to supersede the viceroy. His successor was Don 
Diego de Acevedo y Zuniga, Count of Nieva, who left 
Spain in January, 1560, and landed at Payta in the 
following April. But the ingratitude of his king was 
the last blow to a frame worn out by anxiety and hard 
work. The Marquis of Canete died at Lima on the 
30th of March, 1561, before the arrival of his succes- 
sor ; after having governed Peru for nearly five years. 
His work had been thoroughly done. He had restored 
order among the conquerors, and left to his successors 
a fair site on which to build up an administrative sys- 
tem adapted to the needs of conquerors and conquered. 
The marquis had sent home 684,287 ducats, but it was 
the unceasing demand for money from Spain, which 
was destined to render nugatory all attempts at good 
government in the colony. The body of the Marquis 
of Canete was sent home, and buried in his native 
city of Cuenca. 

The administration of the Count of Nieva was of 
brief duration. The beautiful wife of Rodrigo Man 
rique de Lara was a cousin of the young viceroy, and 
the jealous husband discovered love passages between 
them. As the count was passing along the Calle de 
los Trapitos late at night, he was attacked by a num- 
ber of people with bags full of sand, and the blows 
were continued until life was extinct. Next morning 
the viceroy was found dead in his bed and to avoid 
scandal, the idea was encouraged that death was caused 
by a sudden illness. The judges took the same view, 
and the matter was hushed up. The viceroy's death 



148 A HISTORY OF PERU 

took place on the 20th of Feburary, 1564. Philip II. 
concurred in the view of the judges, and the count's 
successor was not given the title of viceroy. The se- 
lection fell upon an experienced lawyer who was a 
member of the Council ot the Indies, the licentiate 
Lope Garcia de Castro, who was appointed governor 
and captain-general of Peru, and president of the^ 
Royal Audience. He entered Lima on the 22nd of 
September, 1564. He had an uneventful term of five 
years, during which the work of dividing the country 
into provinces under corregidors was proceeded with, 
an attempt was made to increase the revenue by im- 
posing custom dues called almojarifazgo, and an expe- 
dition of discovery was despatched from Callao under 
the command of Alvaro de Mandana, a nephew of the 
governor, who discovered the Solomon Islands. The 
quicksilver mine of Huancavelica began to be worked 
in 1566. On the 26th of November, 1569, Lope Garcia 
de Castro gave up the command to the new viceroy 
Toledo and, returing to Spain, he resumed his seat in 
the Council of the Indies. 

Don Francisco de Toledo was a younger brother of 
the fourth Count of Oropesa, belonging to a branch of 
the same ancient house as the dukes of Alva. He was 
advanced in years when he received the appointment, be- 
ing then the king's mayor-domo : a man of great energy 
and resolution, devoted heart and soul to his public 
duties, but narrow-minded and uns3^mpathetic. Land- 
ing at Payta he traveled through the coast valleys to 
Lima, closely observing the condition of the people. 
In him the viceregal title was restored, and he was 
the fifth viceroy of Peru. He resolved to make a tour 
of inspection through every province of his govern- 
ment, and in his extended investigations into the con- 



SETTLEMENT OE THE COUNTRY 149 

dition of the country, and the laws and customs of 
the natives, he was assisted by three men of great 
learning and ability, the Jesuit Acosta, the judge Ma- 
tienzo, and the licentiate Polo de Ondegardo. The 
valuable and instructive writings of all three of these 
councillors have been preserved to us. After gaining 
ample local experience, and with the aid and advice of 
these trained administrators, the viceroy prepared a 
code of ordinances for the government of the country ; 
but he first resolved, with cold-blooded cruelty to extir- 
pate the native dynasty. Incapable of understanding 
the liberal and generous policy of the Marquis of Caii- 
ete, it was the belief of the shrewd but narrow-minded 
Toledo that there could be no security for Spanish rule 
while the natives retained a feeling of love and vener- 
ation for their ancient sovereigns. 

There was great rejoicing at Cuzco, among the native 
population, at the time that the viceroy Toledo ar- 
rived there in 1571. The people of the capital, since 
their rightful sovereigns had been fugitives in Vilca- 
bamba, had looked upon the Inca Paullu, who resided 
in the palace on the Colcampata, and after his death in 
1545 on his son Don Carlos Inca, as their protectors 
and chiefs. The wife of Carlos Inca had given birth 
to a son, and when he was christened with the name 
of Melchior Carlos in the church of San Cristoval, on 
Epiphany Sunday, 1571, the viceroy himself was one of 
the sponsors. The Colcampata is a terrace along the 
length of which there then stood, and still stands, an 
Inca palace of the earlier period : a wall of unrivaled 
masonry pierced at intervals with doorways having 
sides leaning toward each other and monolithic lintels. 
The terrace was shaded by rows of molle trees (the 
"pepper tree" of the Mediterranean) with their graceful 



I50 A HISTORY OF PERU 

pinDated leaves, aad bunches of red berries. Immedi- 
ately in the rear of the palace rises the precipice of 
the Sacsahuaman, on which stands the ancient fortress. 
In front, the city of Cuzco is spread out at the base of 
the Colcampata, with its rich plain beyond, and the 
view bounded by the snowy peaks of Vilcanota. At 
the east end of the terrace the road continues up to the 
fortress. At the west end is the main door of the little 
church of San Cristoval ; and near it a steep street 
leads down into the town. 

That Epiphany Sunday was a memorable day in the 
annals of Peru. Then, for the last time, the Incas were 
assembled in their splendid costumes to celebrate a 
national festival. They came from all directions, at- 
tended by their vassals. Even the sons of Manoo 
Inca, who still worshipped Uira-cocha and the Sun in 
the fastnesses of Vilcabamba, were present in disguise. 
One of them, Cusi Titu Yupanqui, was revered as the 
rightful sovereign of the land ; while Tupac Amaru, 
his brother, was still a young boy. All attended in 
the church of San Cristoval, and afterward stood on 
the Colcampata terrace, under the shade of the moUe 
trees. There too was the ominous figure of the vice- 
roy, attended by a crowd of high dignitaries in church 
and state. A portrait remains, which enables us to 
picture to ourselves, in imagination, the outward ap- 
pearance of Don Francisco de Toledo. A tall man with 
round stooping shoulders, in a suit of black velvet and 
the red cross of Santiago embroidered on his cloak. 
A gloomy, sallow face, with high forehead and pierc- 
ing black eyes is shaded by a tall beaver hat, while one 
hand holds the hilt of a sword and the other rests on 
a long stick. The bright crowd of richty dressed 
children of the Sun moved about, rendered happ^^ by 



SETTLEMENT OE THE COUNTRY 151 

the honor of his presence, but he, like a bird of rapine, 
with his bright black eyes noting every trifle, medi- 
tates their extirpation. The festival lasted for several 
days, and at its conclusion Cusi Titu Yupanqui and 
Tupac Amaru returned to Vilcabamba, secretly as the}^ 
had come. But their presence became known to the 
vigilant enemy of their race, and he resolved to send 
a mission with the object of decoying them into his 
power. 

Vilcabamba is a mountainous region, between the 
rivers Apurimac and Vilcamayu, with ravines sloping 
down to the forests of the montafia, where the streams 
become navigable. It is ver}^ difficult of access and 
was selected, for this reason, by the Inca Manco, for 
the last refuge of his race. The mission sent by the 
viceroy, Toledo, consisted of two Augustine monks 
named Juan de Vivero, and Diego Ortiz, Don Atelano 
de Anaya and Don Diego Rodriguez de Figueroa as en- 
voys, and a half-caste interpreter named Pando. They 
brought presents and were well received. Cusi Titu 
was told that he was expected to visit Cuzco, and swear 
allegiance to the king, in the person of his viceroy. 

He consented, but there were delays from day to day, 
and the embassy returned, leaving only the priest 
Diego Ortiz, and the interpreter Pando, with the Inca. 
Soon afterward the Inca fell ill and was on the point of 
death. His chiefs told Diego Ortiz that if he was the 
priest of God he must cure the Inca ; who had already 
been baptized with the name of Felipe by Father Vivero 
The Inca became worse and died, and the chiefs were 
enraged. One named Quispi angrily asked how it was 
that if the god of Ortiz was so powerful, he had not pre- 
vailed upon him to cure their sovereign. He was put 
to death, and the interpreter Pando was killed with him. 



152 A HISTORY OF PERU 

The chiefs and their followers then proceeded to the 
fortress of Pitcos, which is situated on a lofty hill com- 
manding a glorious view over Vilcabamba. The 3'oung 
lad Tupac Amaru was set in their midst, and they gave 
him their allegiance as their sovereign Inca and lord. 
He was made to assume all the insignia according to 
ancient usage. The leading chiefs then prepared for 
defence, and encamped on the banks of the river Chu- 
quichaca, the bridge of which is the entrance and key 
to Vilcabamba. All had happened as the viceroy 
desired. He now had an excellent pretext for war. 
He organized a considerable force under Don Martin 
Plurtado de Arbieto as general, with Geronimo de 
Figueroa, the viceroy's nephew, and Martin Garcia de 
Loyola who had married the Inca's sister, as captains. 
When they reached the bridge over the Chuquichaca 
they found Tupac Amaru encamped on the other side, 
and opened fire with their artillery and arquebusiers. 
The Inca retreated, and the Spaniards followed in pur- 
suit. But the path was narrow, with dense forest on 
one side and a precipice bn the other, so that they 
could only proceed two abreast. Loyola had a very 
narrow escape from a chief who sprang out of the 
undergrowth, and engaged him in a single combat. On 
reaching the settlement of Oncoy tidings were obtained 
that the Inca had descended the river in a canoe. He 
was closely followed and captured with many of his 
chiefs, on the 4th of October, 1571. 

Arbieto returned to Cuzco in triumph, bringing with 
him the young Inca Tupac Amaru, who was dressed in 
crimson velvet, with the mascapaycha on his head. 
He was taken direct to the house of Juan de Pancorvo, 
where Toledo was lodging, and presented to him. The 



SETTLEMENT OE THE COUNTRY 153 

viceroy ordered his captive to be imprisoned in the 
palace of the Colcampata. He had already expelled 
Don Carlos Inca from this residence, on the plea 
that he had concealed the presence of his cousins at 
the time of the baptism, and because it was required 
as a royal fort to command the city. After several 
days, during which the corregidor of Cuzco took evi- 
dence respecting the deaths of Diego Ortiz and the 
interpreter, Tupac Amaru was sentenced to be beheaded. 
The poor boy was ignorant of what took place when 
the priest was put to death, was not present, was in 
no way responsible, and was perfectly innocent. All 
the other prisoners were ordered to be strangled. The 
most illustrious and devoted of these patriots were 
named Huanca and Ccuri-paucar. 

For two or three days the boy was instructed in the 
Christian doctrine, as it was understood by Spanish 
monks, by two priests who were good Quichua schol- 
ars. They baptized him under the name of Diego. A 
scaffold was erected in the great square of Cuzco, in 
front of the cathedral — once the temple of Uira-cocha, 
and the boy was led forth to slaughter, ta7iquavi oris. 
He was placed on a mule in mourning trappings, 
dressed in w^hite cotton with a crucifix in his hands. 
On one side of him walked the good priest Cristoval 
de Molina, a master of the Quichua language, and 
author of the most valuable work that has come down 
to us, on the subject of Inca civilization. On the other 
side was the Jesuit Alonso de Barcena, a native of 
Baeza, who had come out to Peru in the previous 
year, and was destined to devote the rest of his life to 
missionary work. They continued to comfort and con- 
sole the victim of Toledo's ruthless policy through the 
streets, and ascended the scaffold with him. The exe- 



154 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

cutioner was a Cafiari Indian, and when he brought 
out the knife, the vast crowd which had assembled set 
up such a wail of horror and execration that the Span- 
iards were startled. The Inca lifted his hand, and 
in a moment there was profound silence. He then 
said that now his race was run, he saw that he had 
committed many faults. He had once received a 
malediction from his mother for an act of disobedience 
and to this he attributed his violent death. He hoped 
that parents would take this to heart, and chastise 
their children instead of cursing them. Here the 
priests interfered, saying that his death was by the 
will of God, and not owing to the curse of his mother. 
They were so eloquent that he repented of what he had 
said, and pra3'ed that all would pardon him. It was 
a most affecting scene ; and even the stony-hearted 
Spanish priests were melted to tears. The slaughter 
of this guileless, innocent boy seemed too revolting. 
At last there was a general movement among them. 
The execution was stopped while the bishop-elect of 
Popayan, the priors of all the religious orders, and 
the provincial of the Jesuits hurried to the vicero3^'s 
lodgings. They threw themsehes on their knees and 
entreated Toledo to spare the ycung Inca's life. The}^ 
even claimed a right for him to be sent to Spain, and 
judged by the king. But they failed to communicate 
the feeling which had spurred them on to this interces- 
sion. The stolid viceroy was unmoved. He was 
merely angry at the dela}^ The vast crowd remained 
in suspense. Soon the Chief Alguazil of Cuzco, 
named Juan de Soto, was seen with a pole in his hand, 
and forcing his way through the crowd on horseback. 
As soon as he was within hearing, he shouted out his 
excellencv's orders that the Inca's head was to be cut off 



SETTLEMENT OE THE COUNTRY 155 

at once, in execution of the sentence. Tupac Amaru had 
shown wonderful composure. He now submitted to 
the fatal blow : and again there was a deafening shout 
of lamentation, while the bells of the cathedral began 
to toll. The body was carried to the house of Dona 
Maria Cusi-Huarcay, the Inca's mother, amidst the 
strongest manifestations of sorrrow, both from natives 
and Spaniards. Next day it was solemnly interred in 
the cathedral where the service was performed by the 
whole chapter, and daily masses were continued for 
nine days. 

All this was contrary to the wishes of the viceroy, 
who caused the head to be stuck on a pike, and set up 
beside the scaffold. The Indians came in great crowds, 
silently and in the dead of night, to worship around 
the head of their beloved sovereign. One night a 
Spaniard got up and looked out of his window. The 
moon was shining brightly. To his astonishment he 
beheld the whole square covered with a mass of kneel- 
ing people, their faces all turned, with expressions of 
deep devotion, to the Inca's head. The circumstance 
was reported to Toledo, who ordered the head to be 
taken down and buried with the body. Again a sol- 
emn service was performed by the chapter of the cathe- 
dral. Public opinion was clearly against the viceroy, 
and looked upon his conduct as inhuman. But he was 
quite unmoved. Many other executions followed, and 
he carried his policy of extirpation to such a length as 
to commence a ruthless persecution of the half-castes, 
sons of Spaniards by Inca mothers. Thus the school- 
fellows of the historian Garcilasso de la Vega, who had 
passed a happy boyhood at Cuzco, were banished to 
the fetid swamps of Darien or to the dreary wastes of 
Chile. All objects that were revered by the people, 



156 A HISTORY OF PERU 

or that were likely to recall memories of the past, 
were destroyed or removed. The mummified bodies 
of three of the greatest among the Incas were sent to 
Lima. 

This cruel policy succeeded in its immediate object. 
The hopes of the people were crushed. For two cen- 
turies they submitted to their fate. 

Toledo then proceeded to compile a body of regu- 
lations, founded to some extent on the laws of the Incas, 
which was intended to be the basis of future adminis- 
tration. These regulations were not all promulgated at 
once. The first installment was dated at Checacupi 
near Cuzco on October i8th, 1572. The whole code 
was known as the "Libro de Tasas." 

The country was divided into districts called coi-re- 
gimientos, each under a corregidor or governor, of which 
there were about fifty. Each town was governed by a 
cabildo or municipalit}^ consisting of an alcalde or judge 
and several regidoj-es or magistrates. The tasas or 
rules of the vicero}^ Toledo not onl}' laid down the 
duties of all these officials, but also regulated the work 
of the different tradesmen and the arrangements of the 
markets. An attempt was made to maintain the or- 
ganization connected with maintenance of roads, and 
of supplies in the post-houses, as in the time of the 
Incas. But the life of the old system was shattered, and 
could not be revived. Toledo also decreed that the 
natives, who w^re called "Indians" in Spanish legis- 
lation, should be governed by their own Curacas or 
chiefs, to whom the title of "cacique" was given, a 
word derived from the language of the Antilles^ or 
possibly a corruption of "Sheikh" and broughtfrom the 
old world. Under the cacique there were two officials, 
called pichca-pachacas, placed over five hundred ; and 



SETTLEMENT OF THE COUNTRY 157 

pachacas, for one hundred Indians. This was also an 
imitation of the old Inca system. These offices were 
hereditar}' and their possessors enjoyed several privi- 
leges. The caciques were often men of considerable 
wealth and some of them were members of the royal 
family of the Incas. They were free from tribute and 
from personal service, and thus occupied positions of 
importance among their countrymen. They wore the 
old dress of the Inca nobles, consisting of a tunic 
called uncii, a rich mantle or cloak of black velvet, 
intended as mourning for the fall of their ancient rul- 
ers, called yacolla, and those of the Inca famil}^ added 
a sort of coronet whence a red fringe of alpaca wool 
descended, as an emblem of nobility. This head- 
dress was called mascapaycha. The caciques and their 
subordinates had the duty of collecting the tribute 
which was fixed by Toledo, and imposed on all Indi- 
ans between the ages of eighteen and fifty. In addi- 
tion to this tax, the Indians were made liable to per- 
sonal service in manufactories, and farms. This was 
called the viitta and became the instrument of fearful 
oppression and cruelty. Toledo enacted that a seventh 
part of the adult male population of every village 
should be subject to this mitta, a Quichua word which 
means a "time'" or "turn." The caciques had to send 
the victims of this law, called uii/ayos, to the nearest 
Spanish town, where the}^ could be engaged by any 
one who required their services. This seventh part 
of the population was exclusive of those emplo5'ed in 
the mines ; so that the 7?ntta condemned a large por- 
portion of the people to slavery. There were rules for 
payment of wages and to regulate the distance men 
might be taken from their homes, but these were almost 
universallv evaded. 



158 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Besides the agricultural and pastoral population there 
was a class of Indians who were bound to personal 
service even in the da5's of the Incas. They were 
called "Yanaconas. " Their origin is traced to the 
days of the great conqueror, Tupac Yupanqui. It is said 
that he granted pardon to a large bod}^ of captive rebels 
on condition that they should always be kept apart as 
servants of the Huaca and the Inca. The amnest}' was 
granted at a place called Yana-3^acu ; so the}^ were called 
Yana-yacu-cuna {cuna being the plural particle) which 
became corrupted into Yanacona. The Spaniards made 
this class of people into household servants. In the 
time of Toledo they numbered 40,000 souls ; and were 
domiciled on the estates of Spaniards, who enforced 
service from them, giving them food and clothes, and 
paying their tribute. 

Religion was another source of oppression. A "cura" 
was appointed at every village, whose dut}^ it was to 
uproot all signs of idolatr}'' and to catechise. With 
the cura came turther exactions in the shape of fees 
for masses, christenings; and burials. Toledo enacted 
that an}^ man who married an idolatrous woman was 
to receive a hundred stripes, "because that is the pun- 
ishment which they dislike most." The people were 
prohibited from using surnames taken from the names 
of birds, beasts, serpents or rivers, according to their 
ancient custom. No Indian who had been punished 
for idolatry, joining in infidel rites, or dancing the 
Arauya'WSiS, eligible for an}^ public office. Thus between 
viceroy and priest the people were between the upper 
and nether millstone, and the}^ fast began to disappear 
from the face of the earth. 

Don Francisco de Toledo was so prolific in legisla- 
tion that on the subject of coca cultivation alone, he 



SETTLEMENT OF THE COUNTRY 159 

issued seventy ordinances. Future viceroys referred 
to his volume of rules as to a received and authoritative 
text-book; and one of them declared that "all future 
rulers of Peru were but disciples of Don Francisco de 
Toledo, that great master of statesmanship." He ruled 
the country during thirteen years and having surren- 
dered the government to Don Martin Enriquez on the 
28th of September, 1581, he returned to Spain. Phil 
lip II. received the executioner of Tupac Amaru with a 
chilling welcome. When Toledo appeared in the 
king's presence, Philip said "Go hence to your own 
house. You were not sent to Peru to kill kings, but to 
serve them." Toledo died in September, 1584. 

Don Martin Enriquez, a son of the Marquis of Alcan- 
izes, had been viceroy of Mexico. He united admin- 
istrative experience with zeal to continue the legisla- 
tive work of his predecessor, but his good intentions 
were-cut short by an untimely death. He only had 
time to found the Jesuit College of San Martin at 
Lima, and his brief reign was saddened b}^ a terrific 
earthquake which destroyed the rising town of Are- 
quipa. He died at Lima on the 15th of March, 1583, 
and it was three years before a successor arrived, the 
country being governed in the interval by the judges 
of the Royal Audience. The next viceroy was Don 
Fernando Torres y Portugal, Count of Viliar Don Pardo, 
who reached Lima on the 20th of November, 1586. 
He was an old man without energy or much intelli- 
gence, and was quite incapable of meeting the calami- 
ties of pestilence, famine, and desolating earthquakes 
with remedial measures. In his time the appalling 
disaster to the great Spanish Armada was a crushing 
blow to the mother country. A feeble administration 
of the Indies increased the danger, and Philip looked 



i6o A HISTORY OF PERU 

around for an able and efficient successor to the Count 
of Villar. 

The choice fell upon Don Garcia Hurtado de Men- 
doza, Marquis of Canete, a son of the previous viceroy, 
Marquis of Canete. Don Garcia had himself governed 
Chile under his father, during a memorable period. 
He was now in the prime of life, and one of the lead- 
ing statesmen of Spain. He was accompanied by his 
beautiful and fascinating wife Dona Teresa de Castro, 
who brought out fifty fair damsels in her retinue. The 
new viceroy's brother-in-law, Don Beltran de Castro 
y Cueva, also came out with him. On the 6th of Jan- 
uary, 1590, the marquis made his solemn entry into 
Lima, having landed at Callao after a sea vo37age from 
Panama. His first care was for the protection of the 
coasts. In the time of Toledo an English ship had 
first appeared in the Pacific. Francis Drake caused 
such consternation that the vicero}^ sent an expedition 
to the Straits of Magellan under the command of the 
able and accomplished pilot Don Pedro Sarmiento, who 
made a valuable survey of the straits ; but his attempt 
to form a settlement ended in disaster. Another pirat- 
ical vessel appeared on the coast under Cavendish, in 
the time of the Count of Villar, and committed havoc. 
The Marquis of Canete was better prepared. Sir Rich- 
ard Hawkins arrived on the coast in 1594; but Callao 
had been put into a posture of defence and Don Bel- 
tran, the viceroy's brother-in-law, sailed in command 
of three armed galleons, encountered the English ship 
off the bay of San Mateo, and captured her after a 
desperate action, on the 17th of June. Sir Richard 
Hawkins was brought to Lima with his fellow prison- 
ers, and claimed by the inquisition, but the viceroy 
evaded the demand and sent him to Spain. The fail- 



SETTLEMENT OF THE COUNTRY i6i 

ure of Hawkins put an end to these predatory expedi- 
tions for some time. In the next year the veteran ex- 
plorer Mandana was despatched on a second voyage 
across the Pacific. He discovered an important group 
of islands, which he named the "Marquesas" after the 
viceroy, and reached the Solomon Islands, where he 
died. 

The demand for money from Spain continued to be 
unceasing. Mitayos were sent in crowds to die in the 
mines, new mines were discovered and worked, but 
still the cry was for silver and gold from Peru. The 
viceroys did their best to ruin the colony in order to 
satisfy the mother countr}^ The Marquis of Cafiete 
collected 1,500,000 ducats to send home, besides plate 
and jewels. In 1591 the number of Indians who paid 
tribute to encomenderos was 311,257, the annual sum 
received 1,434,420 ducats, and the king's fifth 286,884. 
In addition to this tribute there were other sources of 
revenue. The almoxarifazgo, from an Arabic word 
meaning "to gather the harvest, " was a custom duty on 
exports and imports. The alcabalay^^s an excise duty 
of two per cent on all provisions sold in the markets, 
and of five per cent on coca. This oppressive tax 
gave rise to an insurrection in Quito which was put 
down, and the royal demands were rigidly enforced. 
The silver mines had increased their 3aeld, and impor- 
tant new veins were discovered in the Hauncavelica 
province, which received the name of Castro-Vireyna, 
in honor of the wife of the Marquis of Cafiete. 

Broken in health, suffering from the gout, and una- 
ble longer to endure the cares of office, the viceroy en- 
treated that he might be relieved, after a service 01 
more than six years. At length, on the 24th of July, 
1596, Don Luis de Velasco, Marquis of Salinas, who 



i62 A HISTORY OF PERU 

had been vicero}^ of Mexico, arrived at Lima. The 
old Marquis of Canete, grown gra}' in the service of 
his country and shattered in health, returned to Spain, 
where he was treated with shameful ingratitude. He 
died in 1599, but honor was done to his memory in 
the elaborate biograph}^ of Cristoval Suarez de Figu- 
eroa, the first edition of wdiich was published in 1613. 

Philip II. died in 1598, while the Marquis of Salinas 
was vicero}^, after a reign of fort57-two years. He had 
completed the ruin of his country. He found Spain 
powerful and prosperous. He left her crippled and 
surrounded by enemies, with provinces in revolt, the 
nav}^ destro5'ed, the ports threatened, and trade par- 
alyzed. Useless wars had decimated the population, 
an absurd fiscal S3^stem had ruined the industries of 
the country, while despotism and the inquisition had 
destro^^ed the chivalrous spirit and the virile energ}^ 
of her sons. All these causes had equall}^ pernicious 
effects on her colonies, with the additional calamity of 
being forced to supply the insatiable needs of a decay- 
ing power with their hearts' blood. There was a con- 
slant drain of wealth from Peru, with no appreciable 
return. 

The exchange of natural products had, however, 
enriched both the old and the new world. The old 
world received from America inestimable gifts, includ- 
ing maize, potatoes, chocolate, tobacco, cassava, ipe- 
cacuanha, quinine, and many precious trees and fruits. 
In return horses, asses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, 
chickens and pigeons were naturalized in Peru. Horses 
came with the first conquerors, and asses arrived at 
Cuzco in 1557, when the breeding of mules was com- 
menced. As early as 1550 Garcilasso de la Vega saw 
bullocks at the plough near Cuzco; and in 1559 the 



SETTLEMENT OF THE COUNTRY 163 

price of cows had come down to six ducats. The 
other domesticated animals from Europe were intro- 
duced within twenty years of the conquest, and multi- 
plied rapidJy. The cultivation of wheat was com- 
menced before the death of Pizarro. Alcantara, the 
half brother of the Marquis, who was killed in trying to 
defend him, had a house and garden at the northwest 
corner of the great square of Lima, and a grant of land 
in the valley of Xauxa. His wife was a lady of great 
virtue and was alike clever and accomplished. Her 
name was Ines Munoz, and she was the first European 
lady who ever landed in Peru. She was also among 
the first inhabitants of Lima. It was this lady who 
introduced the cultivation of wheat. In the year 1535 
she had received a barrel of rice, and she was engaged 
in cleaning some of it, to make a pudding for her 
brother in law, the Marquis, when she found a few 
grains of wheat. She put them on one side and planted 
them in her garden with the greatest care. They yield- 
ed abundantly, and all the grains of this first Peruvian 
harvest of wheat were again sown. By this provident 
system the wheat multiplied so rapidly that in 1539 
the first mills were built. In 1543 wheaten bread 
was sold at two and a half pounds the real. Barley, 
oats, and lucerne were introduced soon afterward. 
Maria de Escobar, the wife of Diego de Chaves, whose 
brother was killed in defending the Marquis Pizarro, 
has the credit of having introduced wheat cultivation 
into the valley of Canete ; where she did good service 
by widely distributing the grains. 

After the murder of her first husband Alcantara, Ines 
Mufioz married Antonio de Ribera, who came out to 
Lima as procurator in 1560. He brought with him a 
quantity of young olive plants, but only very few sur- 



i64 A HISTORY OF PERU 

vived the voyage. He planted them in his wife's gar- 
den, with many slaves and dogs to guard them day 
and night. Nevertheless one was stolen and became 
the parent of all the olive trees in Chile. Of those 
that remained only one became a tree, and was the 
parent of all the olives in Peru. Date palms were in- 
troduced into the coast valleys very soon after the 
conquest; and oranges are said to have been grown 
by Pizarro himself, in the garden of his house at 
Lima. The vine was introduced into Peru by one of 
the conquerors named Francisco de Caravantes, who 
sent for plants from the Canary Islands. The first vint- 
age was at Lima in 1551, but afterward the vine grow- 
ing industry was transferred to the valle3^s of Pisco, Yea, 
and Nasca ; and there was a great trade in wine and 
spirits from the grapes grown there, throughout the 
viceregal times. At first wine was very highly prized, 
and seldom seen at table, even when guests were pres- 
ent. A story is told of a wealthy Spaniard in Peru 
who invited some friends to dinner. One of the guests 
asked for a jug of water~ The host ordered that he 
should be given wine, and when he declined because 
he never drank it, the host exclaimed — "Well, if you 
do not drink wine, pray come and dine here every day. " 
For in comparison with wine the cost of all other 
things was then as nothing. The other fruits and the 
vegetables of Europe multiplied in a marvelous way. 
Garcilasso de la Vega declares that endives and spinach 
grew to such a size around Lima that a horse could not 
force its way through them ; and that near Arica there 
was a radish of such a wonderful size that five horses 
were tethered under the shade of its leaves. 

The sugar cane was brought from Spain to Hispaniola 
by a citizen of the island named Pedro de Atienza. 



SETTLEMENT OF THE COUNTRY 165 

The first sugar estate in Peru was formed in the prov- 
ince cf Huanuco in about 1545. But it was found that 
the coast valleys were best adapted for its cultivation. 
Large plantations were formed, and it was soon proved 
that the strength of the natives was unequal to the 
labor of cultivating them. The descendants of the 
subjects of the Chimu were a clever and naturally joy- 
ous race, but effeminate and enervated by the climate. 
Under the pitiless rule of the Spaniards they soon 
began to die out. Their language is nearly or quite 
extinct, and now only a ver}^ few coast Indians survive 
in Eten, Motupe, Sechura, Catacaos, and a few other 
villages in the north, and at Chilca south of Lima. 
Their places were taken by negro slaves, who began 
to be imported in the first years of the conquest. They 
multiplied, and the labor on the sugar, cotton, and 
vine estates of the coast was negro slave labor. Severe 
edicts prohibited a negro from living in an Indian vil- 
lage, flight was punished with shocking cruelty, and 
it was the Spanish policy to keep the races apart. 

These products of the earth, introduced from the 
old world, are the only benefits which Peru derived 
from her connection with Spain. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE VICEROYS 

The system for the government of the vast colonial 
empire of Spain had been organized and established in 
the form in which it was to continue until its disrup- 
tion, by the beginning of the 17th century. Under 
the king, America was governed from Spain by the 
council of the Indies, which was intended to hold its 
sittings at or near the royal court. It was instituted 
by Ferdinand V. in 151 1, for the control of American 
affairs, but its powers were much enlarged under Charles 
V. and his successors. -This council had supreme ju 
risdiction over all the colonies, all the laws and ordi- 
nances of viceroys and governors were subject to its 
approval, and it had power to frame laws. Its chief 
duty was ordered to be the conversion of Indians. On 
the occurrence of a vacancy in any government it had to 
submit three names to the king for selection, and it 
had special care of the maintenance and despatch of 
fleets. The council consisted of a president, a grand 
chancellorand registrar, eight councillors, afiscal whose 
duty it was to watch over the interests of the royal rev- 
enues, and two secretaries, with a staff of clerks and 
accountants. There was also a chronicler or histori- 
ographer, and a cosmographer whose duties were not 

166 



THE VICEROYS 167 

only to construct maps and charts, but also to deliver 
lectures and to examine officers of the fleet. The Casa 
de la Contratacion at Seville was of earlier date than 
the council of the Indies, though it afterward became 
subordinate. It was originally established by an ordi- 
nance of 1503, with authority to grant licenses, to 
despatch fleets, and to dispose of the results of trade 
and exploration. Under the council it transacted 
commercial business, maintaining a strict and exclu- 
sive monopoly of all the trade of the Indies for the 
merchants of Spain. 

The viceroy of Peru corresponded directly with this 
great department at home. Residing at Lima he re- 
ceived a salary of 30,000 ducats, which was 10,000 more 
than that of the viceroy of Mexico, For he had greater 
and wider responsibilities : including not only the civil 
and military government of Peru, but also the super- 
vision of Chile, Quito, Charcas, and even of New 
Granada and Buenos Ayres, whose captains-general 
were under his jurisdiction. Thus Lima was practi- 
cally the capital of Spanish South America. The vice- 
roy lived in considerable state, with a body guard and 
numerous attendants. He presided over the Royal 
Audience or chief court of justice, and over the Finan- 
cial and Revenue departments, and was commander- 
in-chief of the forces by sea and land. It was the cus- 
tom for each viceroy to write a detailed memoir on his 
administration for the information of his successor. 
These valuable state papers have been preserved, and 
several have been printed. The corregidors, who gov- 
erned the districts under the viceroy, held their offices 
for six years. 

Hardly less in power and influence was the church, 
with its bishops and dignitaries, its convents and fra- 



1 68 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ternities, its parish priests in every village^ its mis- 
sionaries, its complete control over education, and its 
hideous and crushing inquisition. 

The first archbishop of Lima, Geronimo de Loaysa, 
died in 1575, and the see was vacant for six 3^ears. Dr. 
Toribio Mogrovejo was selected as the second arch- 
bishop, and he set out in compan}^ with his sister Gri- 
manesa and her husband Francisco de Quinones, who 
were to manage his household. He was fort}^ three 3^ears 
of age when he entered Lima on th 24th of May, 1581, 
having traveled by land from Pa3^ta. He at once be- 
gan to study the Quichua language to prepare for his 
tours of inspection. As soon as he could converse in 
it, he set out with two chaplains on foot, taking a 
mule for baggage. He traveled over sandy wastes, 
across snowy mountain ranges, and penetrated far into 
the eastern forests. He stopped at wayside huts, in- 
structing, catechising, and administering the sacra- 
ments. At each town he visited all the churches, 
monasteries, and brotherhoods. He continued this work 
year after year, during the greater part of his life as 
archbishop. Two councils had been held by Loa3^sa to 
settle church matters, provide for the conversion of 
the natives, and compile catechisms. The third council 
met in 1583, and Mogrovejo held two Diocesan S3mods. 
He founded the seminar3^ for the education of priests 
at Lima, since known as the College of San Toribio. 
When he set out on his last visitation and his sister 
was packing his clothes, he said "Grimanesa! may 
God be with 3^ou, for I shall never see you more." 
Traveling along the coast he reached Sana, and was 
attacked with fever, in the house of the cura. There this 
excellent prelate died on the 23rd of March, 1606. 
The bod37 was brought to Lima, attended by an im- 




Church of San Francisco, Lima. 



THE VICEROYS i6g 

mense concourse of people and buried in the cathe- 
dral. The almost perfect life of this great and good 
man led to his beatification in 1679, and he was subse- 
quently canonized. The Peruvian prelates were not 
all like St. Toribio, but not a few strove to imitate his 
example, which was set forth in the biography of Leon 
Pinelo, and in the more elaborate work of Montalvo 
entitled, "The Sun of the New World." The patron 
saint of Lima was born there in 1586, and baptized by 
St. Toribio with the name of Rosa. Her parents were 
good, honest people, but very poor, and her beauty 
led to many offers. The persistant refusal of the girl 
to receive suitors enraged her mother, from whom she 
received many blows. She devoted herself to austeri- 
ties, watching and prayers and at length her angelic 
goodness converted her parents, who allowed her to 
enter the order of St. Dominic in 1606. Her sanctity 
became so famous that the archbishop caused her to 
be examined by six theologians, who came to the con- 
clusion that she had never sinned. She died on the 
24th of August, 1617, and was canonized in 1671, her 
feast day being fixed on August 30th, which is still one 
of the chief holidays at Lima. In the Pitti gallery at 
Florence there is a portrait of Santa Rosa de Lima, 
by Carlo Dolce. Peru boasts a third saint in the per- 
son of San Francisco Solano who died in 1610, while 
a Peruvian person of color, named Martin de Porras,, 
was beatified. 

There were five bishoprics in Peru. To the two 
original sees of Cuzco and Lima, were added Arequipa 
in 1612, Guamanga in 1615, and Truxillo in 1611. 
There were cathedral chapters and monasteries of Do- 
minicans, Franciscans, Augustines, and Mercedarios in 
the principal cities. In 1567 the Jesuits arrived in 



I70 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Peru, and soon acquired great wealth, having a large 
church and a college in each city, besides an impor- 
tant missionary establishment at Juli, on the banks of 
Lake Titicaca, which was founded in 1577. The Jes- 
uits introduced printing into Peru, and their first book 
was a catechism printed at Lima b};' Antonio Ricardo 
in 1584. They included in their ranks many devoted 
missionaries, and learned scholars. Among them Bias 
Valera wrote an admirable history of the Incas ; Arriaga 
and Teruel have left curious works on native idolatry; 
Acosta and Cobo were diligent historians and natur- 
alists ; Holguin, Torres Rubio, Figueredo, and Bertonio 
were authors of grammars and dictionaries of the na- 
tive languages. 

The priests kept the education of the people, such 
as it was, entirely in their own hands. In 1551 the 
University of San Marcos, the oldest in the new world, 
was founded at Lima, and twenty years afterward the ex- 
isting buildings were commenced. They consist of a 
court-yard surrounded by a cloister, on the walls of 
which frescoes were painted representing the sciences, 
and, from the cloister, doors led into lecture rooms and 
into the great hall of the university. The statutes 
were revised in 1614, and there were professorships of 
theology, law, medicine, mathematics, Latin, philoso- 
phy, and, for a short time, of Quichua. The ceremon- 
ies of the university were performed with great pomp and 
splendor, and the degrees were conferred in the presence 
of the viceroy and his court. There were also three 
colleges at Lima, that of San Felipe founded in 1592 
for the descendants of the conquerors, a school for 
the sons of noble Indians, and the Jesuit College of San 
Martin. At Cuzco the University of San Antonio Abad 
was founded in 1598, with professorships of Latin, med- 



THE VICEROYS 171 

icine, theology, law, and music \ and the College of San 
Borja was for noble Indians. At Arequipa the College 
of San Geronimo was founded in 1616, and there were 
similar colleges at Truxillo and Guamanga. The mon- 
asteries all had free schools attached to them, but the 
secular clerg}', in their parishes, taught nothing except 
catechism. The universit}^ education of Peru was not 
barren. Among many other scholars Antonio de la 
Calancha wrote a chronicle of the Augustine Order in 
Peru, which is full of valuable historical information ; 
Bernardino de Cardenas was the author of a history of 
Peru, Leon Pinelo was a great bibliographer, Sanchez 
de Viana of Lima wrote a woik on the poetic art in 
Spain in 1580, and Adrian de Alesio composed a life 
of St. Thomas Aquinas. 

The measures taken for the education of the people 
went side b}^ side with the stupid and brutal machin- 
ery for crushing and destroying all freedom of thought 
with the aid of torture and murder. In 1569 Philip II. 
decreed the establishment of the "Holy Inquisition" 
in Peru ; with twelve familiars at Lima, and one in 
every town inhabited b}^ Spaniards. There was one 
redeeming feature in the decree. All Indians were 
exempted from the jurisdiction of the inquisition. 
They were to be considered as catechumens. The 
familiars were to practice on their own countrymen 
only ; who were exposed to all the rigors of this atro- 
cious tribunal, which shrouded its proceedings in im- 
penetrable mystery, and forced innocence to acknowl- 
edge guilt by excruciating tortures. Hanging, burn- 
ing, flogging, the galleys, and confiscation were inflicted 
for the smallest difference of religous belief, for suspi- 
cion of erroneous doctrine, and even for the hallucina- 
tion of a weak mind. The first "auto de ff of theinqui- 



172 A HISTORY OF PERU 

sition at Lima took place in November, 1573, when a 
poor old French Lutheran who had led the life of a 
hermit on a huaca in the valley of the Rimac, was 
burned to death. In 1578 another "auto de fe" was cel- 
ebrated with great pomp, in presence of the gloomy 
tyrant Toledo and the judges of the Audience. There 
was a procession of sixteen victims with ropes around 
their necks, including six priests, a lawyer, and a 
merchant ; the sentences being two hundred lashes on 
some, burning on others, confiscation on all. The 
next "auto de fe" was in 1581, when there were twenty 
victims ; and so the ghastly work continued during the 
centuries of Spanish domination, creating a sensation 
of terror through the land, spreading miser}^ and sor- 
row broadcast, benumbing thought, and graduall}^, but 
very surely, exciting hatred and repulsion. 

With these surroundings of ecclesiastical power and 
inquisitorial cruelty, the vicero3^s had to rule with 
their hands more or less tied for any good work by 
the insatiable cry for money, from home. Most of them 
had good intentions, but "of what avail! The Marquis 
of Salinas promulgated eighteen rules for the guidance 
of the corregidors, having for their object the protec- 
tion of the Indians. These provisions were printed 
by Antonio Ricardo, the first printer in Peru, in 1603. 
But they remained a dead letter. The marquis was 
removed to Mexico in 1604, and died in 1616 when he 
was president of the council of the Indies. He was 
succeeded by the Count of Monterey, who died within 
the year. Don Juan de Mendoza, Marquis of Montes 
Claros, was the fourth viceroy of that illustrious house. 
He governed Peru from 1607 to 1615, with the best 
intentions. He saw clearly the irregularities that were 
making the laws for the good of the people null and 



THE VICEROYS 173 

void, and he fruitlessl}^ strove to check them, but this 
was beyond his power. The whole official world of 
Peru was combined in passive resistance to any such 
reforms. All this is made quite clear in the elaborate 
memair drawn up by the Marquis of Monte Claros for 
the use of his successor. That successor directed his 
efforts to supplying the needs of his master, rather 
than to improving the condition of his subjects. 

Don Francisco de Borja Aragon, Prince of Esquilache 
(or Squillace) in Calabria by right of his wife, was 
born at Madrid in 1533, being a grandson of San 
Francisco de Borja, Duke of Gandia, the third general 
of the Jesuits. The prince was a poet and a scholar 
and was only thirty-two years of age when he entered 
Lima as viceroy in December, 1615. This viceroy as- 
sembled learned and accomplished men in his palace 
at Lima, and held discussions on literary and scientific 
subjects. He showed his fine taste in art by bring- 
ing out good copies of the best masters to adorn the 
churches of Peru, and he founded colleges for the in- 
struction of noble Indians. But he enforced the viitta 
and obligatory service in the mines with the utmost 
rigor, and strictly exacted the collection of the oppres- 
sive alcabala dues. By these means he extracted a rev- 
enue of $2,250,000. As the cost of government in Peru 
was $1,200,000, he was enabled to transmit to Spain 
an, annual surplus of a million ducats. One additional 
source of wealth was the silver mine of San Antonio 
de Esquilache near the Lake of Titicaca, which was 
opened in i6ig, the yield from which was enormous. 

The viceroyalty of the Prince of Esquilache is mem- 
orable for the discovery of the most extraordinary case 
of a woman personating a man that is to be met with 
in history. Catalina de Erauso was a young girl of 



174 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

respectable parentage, who had been placed in a nunnery 
at San Sebastian in Spain. One evening she escaped 
into a small wood, and spent some hours in converting 
her dress into a suit of boy's clothes. Her marvelous 
career then commenced. She not only assumed the role 
of a young man, but of a ro3'^stering, card playing, 
quarrelsome bully. Embarking for America she reached 
Peru and, after several discreditable adventures, the 
girl enlisted in the arm}' which was sent to fight the 
Araucanian Indians in Chile. There she did such 
good service, and behaved with such distinguished 
bravery that she was raised to the rank of an officer. 
She killed her own bother in a duel at Concepcion, not 
knowing who he was, and fled across the Andes to 
Tucuman. There she became engaged to an heiress, 
which made it necessary for her to decamp. Having 
committed a murder at Potosi and another at Cuzco, 
she ended her wanderings at Guamanga. There Cat- 
alina was badly wounded in a street brawl, and she 
confessed her sex to Dr. Carbajal, the first bishop of 
that diocese, in t6i8. From that time she was known 
as the "nun ensign." She was sent down to Lima in a 
litter guarded by six priests and six men at arms. She 
was presented to the Prince of Esquilache, who was 
much interested in her marvelous story. As she was 
not a professed nun she was allowed to dress as she 
pleased, and she returned to Spain in male attire; and 
eventually obtained a dispensation from Pope Urban 
VHI. to continue to wear man's clothes. Having ob- 
tained a pension for her military services in Chile, Cat- 
alina went to Mexico, where she became a muleteer, 
and where she died at an advanced age. She was the 
most remarkable, though not the only instance of a dis- 
guised woman having adopted a military career, in 



THE VICEROYS 175 

that age. Two were found among the dead after an 
assault at the siege of Ostend. 

As soon as the Prince of Esquilache had completed 
his six years of service, he returned to Spain without 
waiting for the arrival of his successor, giving up the 
command to the judges on the last day of 1621, the 
year of the death of King Philip III. The prince still 
had many years of a prosperous life before him, surviv- 
ing until 1658, when he died at Lima, at the age of 
seventy-six. His successor was Don Diego Fernandez 
de Cordova, the first Marquis of Guadalcazar, who 
came from the Mexican viceroyalty, arriving at Lima 
in July 1622, with two fair daughters, and his nephew 
Don Luis as captain of his guard. His German wife 
had died in Mexico. He was a very diligent adminis- 
trator, and his minutes and dispatches have been col- 
lected in three large manuscript volumes. He had to 
make provision for the Araucanian war in Chile, for 
the repulse of piratical attacks on the coast, and for 
the suppression of some disturbances at the mines of 
Potosi. He sent his nephew Luis, as captain-general, 
to establish a strictly defensive system of tactics on 
the Chilean frontier. He repulsed the Dutch fleet of 
Jacob L'Heremite which threatened Callao, and for some 
time occupied the island of San Lorenzo, where its 
admiral died. These predatory voyages were the nat- 
ural consequence of the Spanish monopoly, against 
which the other maritime nations of Europe offered a 
steady resistance until it was broken down. The trouble 
at the mmes of Potosi arose from the rancorous greed 
of speculators. The miners were divided into hostile 
factions called Vascongados and Vicuiias. There were 
incessant bloody encounters and murders, while neither 
the authority of the officials nor the exhortations of 



176 A HT STORY OF PERU 

priests could appease their rancor. A truce was estab- 
lished in 1625, by a compromise proposed by the royal 
officers. It is greatly to the credit of the Marquis of 
Guadalcazar that, although he was powerless to pre- 
vent the autos de fe, he discountenanced those atrocious 
exhibitions. Only one took place during his govern- 
ment. He delivered up charge to the Count of Chin- 
chon, and returned to Spain, Januar}^, 1629. 

Don Luis Geronimo de Cabrera, Count of Chinchon, 
was a statesman of high rank, descended from an an- 
cient Catalonian i-d,va\\y. Spain was utterly impover- 
ished, and when the new viceroy left Cadiz, in August, 
1628, the government was clamoring for money from 
the Indies. Officers who received new appointments 
were to refund half their first year's salary, voluntary 
contributions were called for, and the excise duties 
were increased. Bigotry and bankruptcy went hand in 
hand. Three atttos de fe were celebrated during the 
viceroyalt}^ of the Count of Chinchon, at which upward 
of a hundred persons, several of wealth and position, 
were sacrificed to the -insatiable fanaticism of the 
priests. 

A memorable event took place under the govern- 
ment of this viceroy, conferring lasting benefit on the 
whole human race. The discovery of the febrifuge 
virtue of the quinine yielding Chinchona trees was 
due to the Jesuits. The second wife of the viceroy, 
Dona Francisca Henriquez de Ribera, accompanied 
him to Peru, In 1628 she was attacked by a tertian 
fever. Her physician, Juan de Vega, was unable to 
cure her. At about the same time an Indian of Uritu- 
singa near Loxa in the government of Quito, had given 
some fever-curing bark to a Jesuit missionar}'. He 
sent some of it to Dr. Diego de Torres Vasquez, who 



THE VICEROYS 177 

was rector of the Jesuit college at Lima, and confessor 
to the viceroy. Torres Vasquez cured the vicequeen 
by administering doses of the bark. The countess left 
Peru in 1639, but died at Cartagina on her passage 
home. The remedy was long known as countess's 
bark, and Jesuit's bark, and Linnaeus gave the name 
of Cliinchona to the genus of plants which produces 
it. The bark derived from Uritusinga and the forests 
near Loxa was for man}/ years the only kind known 
to commerce, being exported from the port of Payta. 
It was known as "crown bark." But various species 
of this precious tree are found throughout the eastern 
Cordillera of the Andes for a distance of 2,000 miles. 
The discovery of Peruvian or Jesuit's bark conferred 
an inestimable blessing on the human race, and ren- 
ders the vicero3^alt3' of the Coimt of Chinchon forever 
memorable. 

An insurrection took place in the count's time, among 
the remarkable people called Urus or Ochozumas, in 
the southwestern corner of the Lake of Titicaca. Here 
there are thick beds of rushes several leagues in ex- 
tent, in the midst of which there is an islet inhabited 
by these Urus. The}^ made secret lanes through the 
rushes, which they navigated in their balsas. Secure 
in their lacustrine retreat, they committed many rob- 
beries on the high roads between Chucuito and La 
Paz. The viceroy sent a small force under Don Rod- 
rigo de Castro to chastise them in 1632, and five of 
their chiefs were taken prisoners and hanged. This 
only infuriated the Urus. They chose a fierce and 
audacious Indian named Pedro Laime as their chief, 
who suddenly attacked the bridge over the Desagua- 
dero, burned several houses, and carried off the head 
of one of the chiefs who had been hanged. Castro, 



1 78 A HISTORY OF PERU 

who was a first cousin of the viceroy, then invaded the 
region of matted reeds, reached the islet, burned sev- 
eral huts, but retired without discovering the fast- 
ness of the Indians. In December, 1632, he embarked 
his soldiers in thirty balsas, and, after a long search, 
he came in sight of a hostile squadron of seventy balsas 
under Laime ; but the Urus went in and out among the 
rushes by winding lanes of water known only to them- 
selves, and baffled the efforts of the Spaniards to over- 
take them. Tranquility was not restored until 1634 ; 
when the viceroy acknowledged that the insurrection 
of the Urus had been caused by Spanish injustice and 
tyrann3^ 

The third navigation of the river Amazon also took 
place during the viceroyalty of the Count of Chinchon. 
In 1637 two monks descended the river Napo from 
Quito, and reached Para at the mouth of the Amazon. 
At that period the crowns of Spain and Portugal were 
united. On the arrival of the monks an expedition 
was sent up the river, commanded by a Portuguese 
named Pedro de Texeira, which arrived at Quito in 
1638. It was then resolved that Father Cristoval de 
Acuna should accompany Texeira on his return down 
the river, and prepare a detailed report of all he might 
see. A valuable and useful book by Acuiia was the 
result of this judicious measure. 

At the end of his viceregal term the Count of Chin- 
chon was relieved b}^ Don Pedro de Toledo y Le3'va, 
Marquis of Mancera, who made his public entry into 
Lima on the i8th of December, 1639. The count lost 
his wife on the way home. She had given birth to a 
son at Pa5^ta when on her journey to Lima as vice- 
queen, and this youth succeeded as the fifth Count 
of Chinc?ion on the death of his father in 1647. 



THE VICEROYS 179 

The Marquis of Mancera and his successor the 
Count of Salvatierra held office from 1639 to 1655. 
Don Luis Henriquez de Guzman, Count of Alba de 
Liste and Grandee of Spain, who had previously been 
viceroy of Mexico, entered Lima in February, 1655. He 
was the founder of scientific studies in Peru, which had 
hitherto been wholly neglected. He brought with him 
an eminent mathematician named Lozano, who was ap- 
pointed cosmographer and professor at the university. 
A native of Malines named Koenig acted as his assis- 
tant, taking numerous astronomical observations, con- 
structing a map of Peru, and himself engraving it on 
silver. Koenig succeeded to the professorship on the 
death of Lozano, and published the Ephemerides of 
Peru from 1680 to 1708. The Count of Alba de Liste 
also paid great attention to the creation of an adequate 
nav}^, and to fortifying the ports. Two frigates were 
built at Guayaquil, and the two sons of the viceroy 
were successively admirals of the South Sea. 

Don Diego Benavides y de la Cueva, Count of San- 
tistevan, who succeeded the Count of Alba de Liste in 
1661, was of the blood royal, being descended from 
King Alfonso V^H. By this time the condition of the 
Indians of Peru had become almost intolerable. In 
1657 a detailed report had been drawn up by the licen- 
tiate Juan de Padilla on the cruel and illegal treatment 
of the Indians, and petitioning for prompt and effica- 
cious remedial measures. It was a fearful indictment 
against Spanish colonial rule. In this important state 
paper the clergy are condemned as strongly as the civil 
authorities. The rules of Toledo respecting the niitta 
had become a dead letter. There was a system of kid- 
napping throughout the country. In many places, 
where all the male adults had been dragged off to the 



i8o A HISTORY OF PERU 

mines, the women and children alone were left to till 
the fields. Boys only six to eight years old were torn 
from their homes, taken to slavery in factories and 
cruelly beaten. The expenses of journeys to the mines 
were never paid, and all wages were withheld. At 
the mines and factories there were shops for the sale 
of Spanish goods. The Indians were forced to incur 
debts at these places for articles they did not want, 
and then detained in perpetual slavery. Tribute was 
exacted from the villages and not from individuals, 
and when the population decreased the same sum was 
required. The exactions and tyranny of the priests 
were almost as cruel as the oppression of laymen. 
The bishops, unmindful of the example of St. Toribio, 
now scarcely ever visited their dioceses personally. 
There was no one to control or restrain the greed of 
the priests. The people were driven to mass, where 
they were forced to pay fees and, if unable, their 
clothes were taken from them in defiance of the law. 
Large fees were exacted from the Indians for their 
dead, though in most cases the priest had neither ad- 
ministered the sacrament nor performed the burial 
service. 

The persistent outcry of Padilla at length forced the 
authorities to listen. The judges were ordered to ex- 
amine the charges and to apply a remedy. Excellent 
regulations were once more promulgated. In 1664 the 
Count of Santistevan fixed the hours, of work, and the 
rations to be issued at the mines and factories. He 
ordered that aged persons and childen were not to 
work, that no one was to be taken to a distance of 
more than two leagues from his own home, and that 
wages were to be paid in the presence of a government 
official But he did not alter the mitta as established 



THE VICEROYS i8i 

by Toledo, and his remedial ordinances were habitually 
evaded. 

The Count of Santistevan died at Lima in March, 
1666, and his successor Don Pedro Fernandez de Cas- 
tro Andrade y Portugal, Count of Lemos, made his 
public entry eighteen months afterward, on November 
2ist, 1667. The new viceroy was a grandee of Spain, 
and a son of the patron of Cervantes. The Count of Le- 
mos was thirty-three years of age, and was married to the 
beautiful Ana de Borja> daughter of the Duke of Gan- 
dia. Three of their children were born in Lima, their 
godfather being the saintly Jesuit, Francisco del Cas~ 
tillo. Like that of the Marquis of Guadalcazar, the 
government of the Count of Lemos was troubled by 
the state of anarchy which prevailed among the Span- 
iards in the mining districts. The state of affairs at 
Potosi was disgraceful. Disputes were incessant, and 
they were invariably settled by a resort to arms. In 
1657 a ver}^ rich silver mine had been discovered at 
Laycacota near Lake Titicaca, and the speculator who 
worked it, named Caspar de Salcedo, became enor- 
mously rich. This caused jealously among the other 
mine owners, which resulted in the formation of armed 
bodies of men and frequent blood}/ encounters. In 
1665 the viceroy proceeded to Arequipa, and thence 
to Pancar-colla, near the lake, with a suitable force. 
He then opened a summary court to try offences com- 
mitted at the mines, assisted by one of the judges 
of the Audience as assessor, and he executed no less 
than fort5/-two persons, including a brother of Salcedo, 
while upward of sixty more were banished and heavily 
fined. The Salcedo family protested against this sever 
ity and appealed to the king, the lawsuit lasting nearly 
forty years. Finally the viceroy's judgment was re- 



i82 A HISTORY OF PERU 

versed. Moreover, he was told by his confessor Castillo 
that he had been needlessly harsh and cruel, which 
plunged him in the depths of remorse and contrition. 
He ordered masses for the souls of the men who had 
been executed, and he himself acted as sacristan, 
blowing the organ and attending to the lamps. In the 
midst of these acts of devotion he was attacked by a 
dangerous illness at Lima, which carried him off in 
the prime of life, on the 6th of December, 1672. His 
body was buried in the church of San Pedro, and the 
countess returned to Spain with her children. 

Don Balthasar de la Cueva, Count of Castellar, the 
new viceroy, was a younger son of the Duke of Albu- 
querque, enjoying his title by right of his wife Teresa 
de Saavedra. He was a zealous guardian of the royal 
revenues, economical, strict, and upright. In four 
years he succeeded in transmitting home $4,462,507, be- 
sides the value of quicksilver sent to Mexico, valued at 
$221,592. It must be added, to his credit, that he was 
equally zealous in defence of the Indians, frequently, 
punishing both corregidors and priests for acts of in- 
justice. Some very slight relaxation of the Spanish 
monopoly was the cause of the viceroy's fall. He per- 
mitted some commercial intercourse with Mexico, and 
this had led to the introduction of a few articles' from 
China into Peru. This caused an outcry from the 
Spanish merchants, who made loud complaints and, 
without being heard, the viceroy was summarily super- 
seded, and ordered to be put on his trial. The arch- 
bishop of Lima, Dr. Melchor de Linan y Cisneros, 
took cliarge of the government on July 7th, 1678, and 
the Count of Castellar was ordered to reside at the 
little village of Surco near Lima, during the trial. It 
lasted for two years. Eventually he was acquitted, but 



THE VICEROYS 183 

strict orders were issued to prevent all trade with 
China, and to destroy all Chinese articles. Castellar 
became a member of the council of the Indies, and 
occupied that post until his death in 1686. 

The archbishop held office for three years and a half. 
Don Melchor de Navarra y Rocaful, Duke of La Palata, 
arrived as viceroy in November, 1681, and remained 
until i6gi. The duke was an experienced statesman, 
who had been president of the royal council during 
the minority of Charles II. His work was difficult and 
thankless, owing to the vexatious conduct of the am- 
bitious prelate whom he had superseded, while his 
financial difficulties were increased by the necessity 
of defending various points along the coast from the 
attacks of buccaneers. One of his defensive measures 
was the erection of walls around Lima and Truxillo and 
he also labored to equip an effective squadron of ships. 
His successor, Don Melchor Portocarrero Laso de la 
Vega, Count of Monclova, arrived at Lima on August 
15th, 1689, but the duke remained there until the ex- 
amination into his government, called his "Residencia," 
was completed, and died at Portobello on his way 
home, in 1691. The Count of Monclova was a very 
distinguished military officer, and had lost an arm in 
the battle of the Dunes near Dunkirk, in 1658. He 
had been viceroy of Mexico, and came from Acapulco 
by sea. During his viceroyalty the last king of the 
house of Austria died ; and when he was carried off by 
a fever at Lima in 1705, the Bourbons were on the 
throne of Spain, and there was a change of policy. 

The treaty of Utrecht, by which the Bourbon Philip 
V. was recognized as king of Spain, was signed on 
March 13th, 1713. England acquired the right to im- 
port slaves by an agreement called "Asiento de Ne- 



i84 A HISTORY OF PERU 

gros," as well as to send a ship with six hundred 
and fifty tons of merchandise, when the galleons went 
to Portobello, called "Navio de Permiso." The 
French obtained greater concessions, their ships being 
allowed to come around the Horn, and to trade at 
Chilean and Peruvian ports. Thus a breach was at length 
made in the fortress of Spanish monopoly. The sup- 
ply of foreign goods continued to be quite inadequate 
to meet the demand. It gave rise to a strong and in- 
creasing desire for more free intercourse with the out- 
side world ; while the jealousy of the Cadiz merchants, 
and the continued desire to use the colonies solely for 
the benefit of the mother country, deepened and inten- 
sified the dislike of the colonists for Spanish rule. 

The Marquis de Castel dos Rios was the first viceroy 
sent out by the new Bourbon king, and when he died, 
in 1710, he was succeeded by Dr. Diego Ladron de 
Guevara, the excellent bishop of Quito. His enlight- 
ened policy led to his supersession in 1716, on the 
ground that his expenditure for Peruvian purposes was 
too liberal. Don Carmine Nicolas Caraccioli, Prince 
of Santo Bono, a Neapolitan nobleman of high rank, 
entered Lima on the 5ch of October, 1716, bringing 
out stringent orders to destroy all foreign trade in the 
Pacific, burning ships and merchandise. The very 
slight concessions were already repented of, and the 
retrograde policy increased the desire of the Peruvians 
for freedom, while it excited their indignation. Cap- 
tain Juan Nicolas de Martinet, in command of two 
frigates, seized and destroyed several French ships. 
The Prince of Santo Bono was superseded at his 
own request, in 1720. . 

Don Jose de Armendariz, Marquis of Castelfuerte, 
was the next viceroy, relieving Dr. Morcillo Rubio de 



THE VICEROYS 185 

Aunon, archbishop of Charcas, who had held office 
since the departure of the Prince of Santo Bono. The 
marquis was an old general whose gallant charge 
broke the enemy's left wing at the battle of Villaviciosa. 
He also took part in the siege of Barcelona, and was 
captain-general of Guipuzcoa when he was selected 
for the Peruvian viceroyalt}^ He entered Lima on 
the 14th of Ma}', 1724. He was a stern disciplinarian. 
Accusations had been sent against Don Diego de los 
Reyes, governor of Paraguay, and Don Jose Antequera 
was sent to Asuncion with a commission to try the 
accused official. Antequera assumed the government 
and put Reyes in prison. The viceroy disapproved 
of these proceedings and cancelled the commission of 
Antequera, ordering Reyes to be reinstated. This was 
not done, so the viceroy ordered Antequera to come to 
Lima. He refused and called the people to arms. 
Finally he was arrested and brought to Lima in April,. 
1726. Societ}^ at Lima was in his favor. Great efforts 
were made to delay his trial. But the viceroy was re- 
solved to punish him, and sentence of death was passed. 
The judges, the university, the municipality, and the 
people of all classes petitioned for pardon. The stern 
old marquis was inexorable, and Antequera was brought 
out for execution in the great square of Lima, on the 
5th of July, 1731. There were cries for pardon, the mob 
began to throw stones, and there was some danger of 
a rescue being attempted. Hearing rhe tumult, the 
viceroy came out on horseback and ordered his guards 
to fire. Antequera fell dead, as well as the two priests 
by his side, and several others. The viceroy then or- 
dered the body to be taken to the scaffoJd and beheaded. 
His conduct was approved by the king in a decree 
dated September, 1733. 



1 86 A HISTORY OF PERU 

The Marquis of Castelfuerte protected the people 
from oppression, and when the bishops supported the 
clergy in their shameless exactions, he forced them to 
yield. He also resisted the excesses of the inquisition. 
The Holy Office had the audacity to summon the vice- 
ro}^ before its tribunal. He came, but he came with 
a regiment of infantry and two field-pieces. Placing 
his watch on the table, he calmly informed the inqui- 
sitors that if their sitting was not over in fifteen min- 
utes, and he outside again, the room would be bom- 
barded. This resolute and able old general gave up 
charge to his successor, and went home b}^ wa}^ of 
Mexico. On his return he was decorated with the 
order of the Golden Fleece. 

The Marquis of Villa Garcia, who was the fifth 
viceroy belonging to the noble famil}^ of Mendoza, 
entered Lima on the 4th of January, 1736. His vice- 
ro3^alty was made famous, because under his auspices 
the measurement of an arc of the meridian was under 
taken near Quito, by the French academicians, La Con- 
damine, Bouguer, and Godin, assisted by the accom- 
plished Spanish naval officers Jorge Juan and Antonio 
UUoa. The measurement was completed in 1736, and 
M. Godin became professor of mathematics at Lima 
for the following ten years. The Marquis of Villa 
Garcia set sail for Spain by way of Cape Horn in 1745, 
but died on the passage. 

The eighteenth century was a time of some literary 
activity in Lima, in spite of the incubus of Spanish 
monopoly and the terrors of the inquisition. Dr. 
Don Pedro Peralta y Barnuevo, who was a native of 
Lima, was professor of m.athematics and afterward 
rector of the University of San Marcos, from 1715 to 
1717. He succeeded Dr. Koenig as cosmographer, 



THE VICEROYS 187 

and held that office from 1708 until 1743, publishing 
the ephemerides which were commenced by Dr. Koe- 
nig under the title of "Concimientos de los tiempos. " 
He was a financier, an engineer, a man of science, and 
a historian. Speaking six languages he was well 
versed in the literature of Europe. He wrote many 
works, including a history of the viceroyalty of the 
Marquis of Castelfuerte, and a treatise on the defence 
of Lima. But he is best known for his epic poem en- 
titled "Lima Fundada. " Dr. Peralta died in 1745, aged 
eighty. He was certainly one of the most distinguished 
men of letters produced by the universit}^ of Lima. 

From the date of the retirement of Villa Garcia there 
was a change in the class of men selected to fill the 
post of viceroy of Peru. Hitherto they had been noble- 
men of exalted rank and position. During the last 
eighty years of Spanish rule they were generally 
experienced naval or military officers who, it was 
thought, would be more in sympathy with the colonists. 
During thirty years after the departure of the Marquis 
of Villa Garcia, Peru was governed by tvv^o military offi- 
cers who were instructed to inaugurate a polic}^ of con- 
ciliation. These were Don Jose Antonio Manso, Count 
of Superunda, and Don Manuel Amat. One form of 
this concilatory policy was the conferring of titles of 
nobility on the colonists. Such titles had occasionally, 
but rarely, been granted during the last half of the pre- 
vious century. The viceroys, Manso and Amat, had 
authorit}^ to create noblemen on a larger scale. Alto- 
gether one dukedom, fifty-eight marquisates forty-four 
countships, and one viscountship were conferred on Pe- 
ruvian heads of families, with inayorazgos, or power to 
entail their estates. It was too late. The estrangement 
was too deeply seated ; and this measure did not mater- 



i88 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ially tend to arouse the loyal feelings of the South 
Americans for the Bourbon dynasty. 

General Don Jose Antonio Manso was a soldier of 
distinction who had seen active service in the war of 
succession, and had been captain-general of Chile dur- 
ing an energetic administration of ten 3^ears. He made 
his public entry into Lima on the 12th of Jul}^, 1745? 
and was created Count of Superunda. 

A year after the arrival of the new viceroy, a terrific 
earthquake destroyed the capital. Since the 'founda- 
tion of Lima that city had been nearly destro3^ed in 
1586, in 1630, and again in 1687 ; but on none of those 
occasions was the destruction to be compared with 
that of the 28th of October, 1746. The whole city be- 
came a heap of ruins, and more than a thousand per- 
sons perished. At Callao, the port of Lima, a great 
wave destroyed the town, the frigate "San Fermin" was 
carried far inland, nineteen other vessels were stranded, 
and 4,600 people perished. The Count of Superunda 
exerted himself to rescue the buried people, regardless 
of danger to himself. He took energetic and judi- 
cious steps to relieve the wants of the homeless citizens, 
and devoted the remaining years of his vicero3^alty to 
the work of rebuilding the capital and the port. In 
this he received valuable assistance from M. Godin, who 
planned and nearly completed Callao Castle. It has 
a long curtain facing the sea, with two round towers, 
having smaller towers of less diameter rising from 
them. The work has often been compared to an ink 
tray with two bottles rising from it. No viceroy held 
office for so long a time as the Count of Superunda, 
from 1745 to 1761, a period of sixteen years. 

His successor, Don Manuel Amat, of an ancient 
Catalonian family, had seen much military service and 



THE VICEROYS 189 

had been captain-general of Chile during the previous 
six years. He made his public entry into Lima on 
the i2th of October, 1761. He completed what his 
predecessor had begun and Lima, with its picturesque 
streets and churches, and its numerous towers, is the 
Lima of Manso and Aniat. The latter viceroy, uniting 
the two colleges of San Felipe and San Martin, found- 
ed the college of San Carlos in 1770, an institution 
where the elite of the Peruvian youth has ever since 
been educated. Don Manuel Amat had a passion for 
everything connected with military affairs. He organ- 
ized militia regiments, made plans for the defence of 
the coast, put a small fleet into a state of efficiency 
and even sent an expedition of discovery to the 
Pacific Islands. In 1767 it fell to his lot to carry out 
orders from home for the expulsion of the Jesuits. 
Immense wealth thus became the property of the gov- 
ernment. At and around Lima alone they owned 5,000 
negro slaves, ^180,000 in gold and silver, 52,300 
marcs of silver, 7,000 castellanos of gold plate, ^818,000 
of credit, and ^650,000 in value of farms. It was 
necessary to create an office for the management of this 
confiscated property. Notwithstanding the arbitrary 
tendencies and soldierly manner of this viceroy he 
acquired great social influence and made man}^ friends 
In Lima. His mistress, Mariquita Gallegas, better 
known as "la Perichola, " was famous for her power and 
fascinating manners. It was said that Amat intended 
to continue to reside in Lima after resigning the vice- 
royality, but he returned to Spam a rich man, and 
lived a retired life in a country house near Barcelona. 
His successor was Don Manuel de Guirior, a Navar- 
rese of good family who had served a long and honor- 
able career in the navy. He arrived at Lima on the 



igo A HISTORY OF PERU 

17th of July, 1776. It was the beginning of trouble. 
The grinding oppression by local officials had exhausted 
the endurance of the long suffering people. Insurrec- 
tions broke out in several parts of the country. But 
still the cry from Spain was for more money. One 
measure, during the viceroyalt}' of Guirior, was of per- 
manent utility. A botanical expedition was organized 
to explore the botany of the Peruvian forests. In 1778 
the eminent botanists Jose Pavon and Hipolito Ruiz 
landed at Callao. They made large collections of 
plants both near Lima and in the forests of Huanuco 
and Huamalies, and discovered new species of Peruvian 
bark trees. Returning to Spain in 1788, they pub- 
lished their great work entitled "Flora Peruviana." 
Don Manuel Guirior was relieved in 1780 by another 
Navarrese officer who had been captain general of 
Chile since 1773, named Agustin Jauregui. Some 
years previously the council of the Indies had sent 
out one of its body named Jose Antonio Areche, with 
powers which virtually superseded the most important 
functions of the viceroy. He actuall}^ came with in- 
structions to increase the revenue by raising the de- 
mands on the people. The guilt of what followed lies 
at Areche's door. 

Throughout the last century of colonial rule, it be- 
came more and more evident that efficient supervision 
over a continent from the court of the viceroy of Peru 
at Lima, was impracticable. There must be a divi- 
sion of jurisdictions. Accordingly New Granada was 
raised to the rank of an independent viceroyalty in 
1740, with the capital at Bogota. In 1776 Buenos 
Ayres was also elevated to the rank of a viceroyalty, 
with a territory including the whole of the presidency 
of Charcas (the modern Bolivia) up to the northern 



THE VICEROYS 191 

shore of Lake Titicaca. Quito continued to be a pres- 
idency and Chile a captain generalship under the juris- 
diction of the viceroy of Peru. 



CHAPTER VIII 

REBELLION OF TUPAC AMARU 

Two hundred years had passed away since the viceroy 
Toledo had promulgated his "Libro de Tasas. " It 
was designed to secure wealth for Spain through the 
labor of the Indians, and at the same time' to ensure 
the welfare of the natives. How had it worked? Spain 
had become the poorest and weakest power in Europe, 
while nine-tenths of the Indians had been destroyed 
from the face of the earth, and the survivors were 
ground down by pitiless slavery and oppression which 
had become unendurable. This had all been done 
with the best intentions. Nothing could be more 
humane and benificent than the"-orders giVen by the 
Spanish government respecting the treatment of the 
Indians. The vicero3's frequently issued similar in- 
structions to their subordinates, and made spasmodic 
efforts to enforce compliance with them. But there 
was insincerity in all this. The first thing was to 
strain every nerve to sen^ riches home to Spain. Pro- 
hibition to ill treat tXe people took a secondary place 
and the first could not be complied with ei^^ijless the 
second was disregarded. 

Forced labor in the mines, where the unfortunate men 
were forever separated from their wives and families, was 



REBELLION OF TUPAC AMARU 193 

one cause of depopulation. For the mines of Potosi the 
mitta was enforced in the nearest provinces. In 1573 
it produced 11,199 laborers. In 1673, the ;/2/V^« having 
been in no way relaxed in the interval, it produced 
1,674. These figures speak for themselves. In a cen- 
tury nine-tenths of the people had been destroyed by 
overwork and cruelty. The mines of Huancavelica, 
which supplied the quicksilver necessary for extract- 
ing the silver from its ores, also desolated the ten ad- 
joining provinces. In 1645 the mitta amounted to six 
hundred and twenty, and in 1678, only three hundred 
and fifty-four. The oppression of the owners of obrajes 
or manufactories of coarse woolen and cotton cloths 
was as crushing as that of the miners. These manu- 
facturers employed men called guatacos to hunt the 
Indians and drive them into the obrajes. The masters 
then forced their victims into debt to them, and thus 
obtained an excuse for keeping them in perpetual 
slavery. Children were dragged from their homes, in 
defiance of the law, forced to work hard at twisting 
woolen and cotton threads, and cruelly whipped. Many 
encojniendas which originally contained a thousand adult 
male Indians and yielded ^8,000 of tribute, were re- 
duced to a hundred within a century; yet the original 
tribute was demanded from the survivors, and payment 
being impossible, they were carried off into slavery. 
Vast tracts were thrown out of cultivation, and the 
country was rapidly depopulated. 

Don Juan de Padilla raised his voice persistently 
against this atrocious system in 1657. His noble and 
humane conduct was not without imitation. Don 
Ventura Santalices, the governor cf La Paz, devoted 
his time to the same holy cause. He forced the au- 
thorities to listen, and even obtained a seat in the coun- 
13 



/ 



194 A HISTORY OF PERU 

cil of the Indies. But he was poisoned on his arrival 
^ in Spain. An Indian of Inca blood, named Bias Tu- 
' pac Amaru, made such energetic remonstrances that 
he was also summoned to Spain, where he obtained 
promises of many concessions. Hewas murdered at sea 
on his way back. Dr. Gurrachategui, the good bishop 
of Cuzco from 1771 to 1776 was also an ardent friend 
/ of the Indians, protesting against their inhuman treat- 
ment in season and out of season. The efforts of these 
humane and fearless men succeeded in making the 
dreadful history known in all its shocking details, 
both to their contemporaries and to posterity. But 
"they failed to secure any mitigation of the evils. The 
people were reduced to such a state of desperation that 
they felt death to be preferable to their condition on 
earth. They only waited for a leader from among the 
chiefs of their own race. 

Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui was a son of the cacique 
Miguel Condorcanqui by his wife Rosa Noguera. He 
was born at Tinta, in the valley of the Vilcamayu south 
of Lima, and baptized at Tungasuca, the birthplace of 
his father. The young Jose received the first rudiments 
of his education from Dr. Lopez, the cura of Pam- 
pamarca, and a man of considerable talent, and from 
Dr. Rodriguez, the cura of Yanaoca, one a native oi 
Panama, the other of Guayaquil. 

The river of Vilcamayu flows through a rich and 
beautiful valley, with towns and villages on its banks, 
and fields of maize and lucerne, with gardens of fruit 
trees, and small woods of schi?ius moUe and willows. 
On either side are mountains, up which ravines lead 
to lofty highlands covered with coarse grass, and patches 
of potato and quinoa around the villages. A few alpine 
lakes vary the landscape, which consists of rolling 



REBELLION OF TUPAC AMARU 195 

hills, here and there with scarped rocky sides, backed 
by the snowy peaks of the cordillera. Tinta and Sic- ^ 
uani are in the valley, about eighty miles south of 
Cuzco. The villages of Tungasuca, Pampamarca, and 
Yanaoca are on the highlands. 

These were the scenes of young Jose's childhood. 
At an early age he was sent to the college of San Borja 
at Cuzco, which had been founded by the viceroy 
Prince of Esquilache for the sons of noble Indians. 
He was particularly noticed by the professors for his 
close application, capacity, and excellent disposition. 
His scholastic acquirements were not inconsiderable. \ 
He read Latin with ease, spoke Spanish with fluent ac- 
curacy, and his vernacular Quichua with peculiar grace. 
Before he was twenty, he succeeded his father as 
cacique of Tungasuca and Pampamarca, and in 1760, at V 
the ageof eighteen, he was married to Micaela Bastidas, a 
beautiful girl of Abancay. In person, Jose Condorcanqui 
was five feet eight inches high, well proportioned, sin- 
ewy, and firmly knit. He had a handsome Inca face, 
a slightly aquiline nose, full black eyes, and a counte- 
nance intelligent, benign and expressive. His ad- 
dress, remarkable for gentlemanlike ease, was dignified ., 
and courteous toward superiors and equals ; but in his 
intercourse with the aborigines, by whom he was pro- 
foundly venerated, there was a sedateness not inconsis- 
tent with his claims to the diadem of the Incas. In 
mind he was enterprising, cool, and persevering. He '' 
lived in a style becoming his rank, and when residing 
at Cuzco he usually wore a black velvet coat and 
small clothes in the fashion of the da)^, a waistcoat of 
gold tissue, embroidered linen, a beaver dress hat, silk 
stockings, gold knee and shoe buckles ; and he al- 



196 A HISTORY OF PERU 

lowed his glossy black hair to flow in ringlets nearly 
down to his waist. 

The chief sources of the cacique's income arose from 
thirty-five piaras or troops of mules, each pia?'a consist- 
ing of ten, which were regularly emplo^^ed in the trans- 
port of merchandise. He had himself traveled over a 
considerable portion of Peru, and had resided in Lima 
two or three times, being alwa3^s attended in his jour- 
neys by a small retinue of servants, and sometimes ac- 
companied by a chaplain. 

In 1770 the Cacique of Tungasuca went to Lima to 
establish his claim to the Marquisate of Oropesa which 
had been granted to the Inca famil}' by Philip II. Af- 
ter some delay his claim was recognized by the Royal 
Audience and in a judgment pronounced by the Fis- 
cal Don Serafin Leytan y Mola he was declared to be 
heir to the marquisate, as eighth in lineal descent from 
Manco Inca, and heir-at-law of the Inca Tupac Amaru, 
who was judicially murdered by the viceroy Toledo in 
1571. When he returned to Tungasuca, the young Inca 
dropped his name Condorcanqui, and assumed that of 
Tupac Amaru. He governed his villages exceedingly 
well, and was highly esteemed by the corregidor of the 
province, Don Pedro Munoz de Arjona, who admired his 
punctual attention to his duties, and therefore distin- 
guished him above all the other caciques. The Inca 
habitually cultivated the acquaintance of the Spanish 
priests and officials, and never allowed an opportunity 
/ to pass of representingto them, in impassioned language, 
the deplorable condition of the Indians. He assisted 
the distressed, paid tribute for the poor, and sustained 
whole families which had been reduced to ruin. He 
cherished the traditions of his people, and such cus- 
toms as were not inconsistent with his profession of 



REBELLION OE TUPAC AMARU 197 

Christianit}' ; and he especially delighted in the dra- 
matic representations which recalled the glorious memo- 
ries of the past. One of his most intimate friends was 
Dr. Antonio Valdez, cura of Sicuani, a perfect master 
of the Quichua language, and the adapter of the Inca 
drama of Ollanta for the stage. 

The oppression of the Indians excited the indigna- 
tion of the Inca Tupac Amaru, but he exhausted every 
means of obtaining redress, before he was finally driven 
to take up arms in their defence. At length his pa- \ 
tience came to an end, and he resolved to make an ap- 
peal to arms, not to throw off the 3^oke of Spain, but to ^ 
obtain some guarantee for the due observance of the 
laws. His views were certainly confined to these ends 
when he first drew his sword, although afterward, when 
his modest demands were only answered by cruel taunts 
and brutal menaces, he probably saw that indepen- 
dence or death were the only alternatives. 

The most merciless oppressor of the Indians was Don 
Antonio Aliaga, the corregidor of Tinta. He was the 
Inca's immediate superior, who determined to commence 
his revolt by punishing this great culprit. The old 
tutor of Tupac Amaru, Dr. Rodriguez the cura of 
Yanaoca, gave a dinner to the cacique of Tungasuca 
and the corregidor of Tinta to celebrate his name day, 
on the 4th of November, 1780. The Inca, on pretence 
that some person had arrived at his house from Cuzco, 
withdrew from the banquet early. He placed himself 
in ambush on the road with some attendants, and, 
making the corregidor prisoner when on his way back 
to Tinta, conducted him to Tungasuca and placed him 
in close confinement. Tupac Amaru then wrote a 
letter marked resei^vadissima, which he obliged Aliaga 
to sign, ordering his cashier at Tinta to remit the 



igS A HISTORY OF PERU 

public money in the provincial treasury to the Inca, 
assigning as a reason that it was necessary to set out 
forthwith to the port of Aranta, threatened with a 
descent by English cruisers. The Inca thus received 
22,000 dollars, some gold ingots, seventy-five muskets, 
baggage, horses and mules. He sent out orders in all 
directions for recruits to be embodied and sent to Tun- 
gasuca. 

A considerable force soon assembled. The Inca sent 
for his old tutor. Dr. Antonio Lopez, cura of Pampa- 
marca, and ordered him to make known to the corre- 
gidor that he must die, and to administer to him the 
consolations of religion. A scaffold was erected in 
the square of Tungasuca, around which the recruits 
of the Inca were ranged in three ranks, the first armed 
with muskets, the second with pikes, and the third 
with treble loaded slings. Aliaga was then led out 
and publicly executed on the loth of November. Tu- 
pac Amaru, at the same time, addressed the astonished 
multitude in Quichua, .on his present conduct and 
ulterior intentions. Mounted on a fiery charger, attired 
in the princely costume of his ancestors, with a banner 
of the royal arms granted by Charles V., he exhorted 
his followers to lend an attentive ear to the legitimate 
descendant of their ancient sovereigns, promising to 
abolish the mitta, and to punish the cruel and extor- 
tionate corregidors. 

The whole multitude, with one accord, vowed im- 
plicit obedience to his orders, and he at once began to 
form his recruits into companies, and to appoint offi- 
cers. Next day he marched to Quiquijana, in the 
valley of the Vilcamayu, thirty-six miles from Cuzco, 
and entered the town on the 12th. After hearing mass 
he returned toward Tungasuca, destroying the obi-aje 



REBELLION OE TUPAC AMARU 199 

of Parapuquio on his way, where he found large quan- 
tities of woolen cloths, which were distributed among 
his followers. At the obraje of Pumacancha he cap- 
tured 18,000 yards of woolen cloth {^bayeta) and 20,000 
of cotton cloth {tocityo^ some fire-arms, and two field 
pieces. He had now mustered 6,000 men, 3,000 armed 
with muskets, the rest with pikes and slings. The whole 
population, excepting a few whites, was in his favor. 

The news of the revolt of Tupac Amaru was brought 
to Cuzco on the 12th, by the corregidor Cabrera, who 
had fled from Quiquijana. It caused the greatest con- 
sternation, as the city was garrisoned by only two reg- 
iments. Requisitions for troops were sent to the neigh- 
boring provinces, and an express was despatched to 
Lima, imploring for speedy succor. 

Next day a force marched out of Cuzco to attack 
Tupac Amaru, under the command of Don Tiburcio 
Landa, the governor of Paucartambo. It consisted of 
four hundred and fifty soldiers, and seven hundred In- 
dians led by Juan Sahuaraura, cacique of Oropesa, j 
one of the few who took the Spanish side. The cor- 
regidor Cabrera accompanied them. The force ad- 
vanced to the village of Sangarara, within fifteen miles ^ 
of Tinta, where Landa halted on the 17th. Next da}^ 
he found himself surrounded by a superior force of 
hostile Indians, and retired into the church. Here a 
desperate resistance was made, but victory was on the 
side of the Inca. The battle of Sangarara was stained 
with no cruelties. The wounded were carefully tended, 
and set at liberty as soon as they were able to travel. 
Landa, Cabrera, and Sahuaraura were among the slain. 
The news of this disaster reached Cuzco on the 19th, 
and caused indescribable confusion. h\\ the citizens 
were called upon to serve, and Dr. Moscoso, the 



200 A HISTORY OF PERU 

bishop, formed the clergy into four companies under 
the command of the dean, Dr. Manuel de Mendieta. 
Troops arrived from Calca under Don Pablo Astete, 
and from other places, and hy the end of November 
there were 3,000 men in arms at Cuzco. Anxious to 
conciliate the Indians, the municipality then issued a 
proclamation abolishing the alcabala, and declaring 
that the Indians should never again be forced to work 
in the obrajes, if they remained lo3^al. Tupac Amaru 
made a fatal mistake at this juncture. It is probable 
that he might have occupied Cuzco with little opposi- 
tion. Instead of this he formed an encampment near 
Tinta, and issued an edict from his headquarters on 
the 27th, setting forth the causes of the revolt. He re- 
capitulated the grievances of the people, declared the 
tyranny of the Spanish officials to be unendurable, and 
called upon his fellow countrymen to rally around his 
standard. 

Early in December, 1780, the Inca Tupac Amaru 
crossed the Vilcafiota range b}^ the pass of Santa Rosa, 
and entering the Collao or basin of Lake Titicaca, ad- 
vanced to Pucara and Lampa. At every village he ad- 
dressed the people from church-steps, saying that he 
came to abolish abuses and punish the corregidors. 
Nothing was heard among the Indians but acclamations 
for their Inca and redeemer. On the 1 3th of December, 
he entered Azangaro, an important town to the north 
of Lake Titicaca. Here he destroyed the houses of the 
cacique Chuquihuanca, one of the few who had refused 
to join the insurrection. The Inca entered Azangaro 
in triumph. He rode a white horse with splendidly 
embroidered trappings, armed with sword and pistols, 
and dressed in blue velvet, richly embroidered with gold. 
He had on a three-cornered hat, and an iincii or mantle, 



REBELLION OF TUPAC AMARU 201 

in the shape of a bishop's rochet, with a gold chain 
around his neck, from which a large golden sun was 
suspended. 

Having received repeated letters from his wife re- '^^ 
porting the threatening assembl}' of troops at Cuzco, 
he retraced his steps by Asillo and Orurillo to the 
valley of the Vilcamayu, and on the 28th of December 
the heights of Picchu, overhanging Cuzco on the west, 
were covered with his army. His cousin, Diego Tupac 
Amaru, was detached to the eastward with 6, coo men, 
to occupy the provinces of Galea and Paucartambo. 
Before attempting to force his way into the ancient 
capital of his ancestors, the Inca addressed letters to 
the bishop and the municipality on January 3rd, 1781. 
To the municipality he said that, as the heir of the ^, 
Incas, the ancient kings of the realm, he was stimu- ' 
lated to endeavor by all possible means to put an end 
to abuses, and to see men appointed to govern the 
people who would respect the laws of the king of 
Spain. He announced the object of his rebellion to 
be the abolition of cruel exactions, and the establish- 
ment of an Indian judge in each province, and of a 
court of appeal at Cuzco within reach of the people. 
To the bishop he said that he came forward, on behalf 
of the whole nation, to put an end to the robberies and 
outrages of the corregidors. He promised to respect 
the priests, all church property, and all women and 
inoffensive unarmed people. 

The garrison of Cuzco had, in the meanwhile, been 
reinforced by Pumacagua, the cacique of Chinchero, 
and by two hundred mulatto soldiers from Lima, com- 
manded by Don Gabriel de Aviles, a future viceroy. 
These forces came out to attack the Inca, and there 
were skirmishes in the broken ground which were 



202 A HISTORY OF YERtf " ' ''"•. 

brought to a conclusion by the evening snow. But 
on the 8th a sanguinary battle was fought in the sub- 
urbs and on the heights, which lasted two days. It 
was indecisive, and the Inca retreated to Tinta to reor- 
^ ganize his forces. His cousin Diego had been de- 
feated by the Spaniards at Yuca}^ and fell back on 
Tinta, where a large army was assembled. All the 
caciques in Peru, with sixteen exceptions, had declared 
in favor of the Inca, and all the people longed earnestl}^ 
for the success of this truly national insurrection. The 
whole interior of Peru was in revolt. 

The viceroy, Don Agustin de Jauregui, remained at 
Lima ; while the "visitador" Don Jose Antonio Areche 
proceeded to Cuzco with extraordinary judicial powers, 
and accompanied by Dr. Benito de la Matta Linares, a 
judge of the Audience, as assessor. A Spanish force 
was also despatched under the General Don Jose del 
Valle, while an officer named Ignacio Flores was sent 
to suppress the rising in upper Peru. The visitador 
and general arrived at Cuzco on the 23rd of Feburar}^, 
1781, where an army of 15,000 men was collected, con= 
sisting of the followers of the Hispanicized caciques, 
negroes, and mulattoes from the cast, and a small force 
of Spaniards. 

Early in March General del Valle prepared to com- 
mence the campaign. But before his arm}^ marched 
out of Cuzco, the visitador Areche received a long 
despatch from Tupac Amaru. The Inca represented 
the earnest endeavors he had made to obtain justice 
for the people, the habitual violation of the law by the 
Spanish officials, the cruel and intolerable oppression 
of the mitta, and the necessity for a reform in the ad- 
ministration. He concluded by proposing a negotia- 
tion by which these ends might be attained without 



REBELLION OE TUPAC AMARU 203 

further bloodshed. This admirable state paper is very 
ably written and is a monument of the noble and en- 
lightened views of this great, but most unfortunate 
patriot. The Spanish authorities intended that it 
should never see the light, and it was only preserved 
through a curious accident. The reply of Areche was 
such as could only be expected from a savage. He 
refused all negotiation, vowed the most horrible ven- 
geance, and concluded by saying that if the Inca sur- 
rendered at once, the cruelty of the mode of his exe- 
cution would be lessened. The Spanish General del 
Valle protested against the brutality of this reply. 

Tupac Amaru prepared to resist to the utmost, as 
complete independence or death were the only alter- 
natives left by the barbarous policy of the bloodthirsty 
visitador. It does net appear that he ever pro- % 
claimed himself a sovereign, independent of Spain. ^-^' ' 
A draft of an edict, without date, is alleged to have 
been found among his papers commencing "Jose I. by 
the grace of God, Inca King of Peru;" but this has 
been proved to have been a Spanish forger}^ to be used 
as written evidence of treason. All his genuine edicts 
were marked by humanity and good sense. 

On March 12th, 1781, the army under General del 
Valle marched out of Cuzco ; and advanced slowly 
over the mountains to the westward of the valley of 
the Vilcamayu, suffering much from the snow-storms, 
and the want of food and fuel. Areche had neglected 
all commissariat arrangements, and showed himself to 
be as incapable as he was inhuman. General del Valle 
was upward of seventy years of age, and unable to 
endure the excessive cold of the mountains. He, there- 
fore, descended into the valley, and occupied Quiqui- 
jana. On the 6th of April the Spanish army advanced 



\ 



204 A HISTORY OF FERU 

up the valley, meeting with considerable opposiiion 
from the Inca's troops. The Inca had taken up a po- 
sition, defended by a ditch and rampart stretching 
across the valley, near Checacupe : but he had neglect- 
ed to provide any defence for his flanks. A Spanish 
division stole unperceived to the rear of the position, 
while the main body assaulted it in front. After an 
heroic defence the Indians fell back to another en- 
trenched work at a place called Combapata, a league 
from Tinta, where the village was surrounded b}^ a 
mud wall covered at the top with thorny bushes. Fol- 
lowing up their success, the Spaniards cannonaded the 
wall with their field pieces for several hours, then car- 
ried the position at the point of the bayonet and made 
a bloody entry into Tinta. 

The Inca Tupac Amaru, with his wife and three sons, 
fled to Lanqui, a village about twenty miles to the west- 
ward, on the shores of a wild alpine lake. Here he 
intended to have rallied his scattered and disordered 
forces. But he and his family were betrayed into the 
hands of the Spaniards- by a villain named Ventura 
Landaeta. On the same day sixty-seven of his follow- 
ers were hanged at Tinta, and their heads were stuck 
on poles by the road side. Diego Tupac Amaru, his 
nephew Andres Mendagure, and the Inca's second son 
Mariano fortunately escaped. 

The prisoners were the Inca himself, his wife, his 
two other sons Hipolito and Fernando, his old uncle 
Francisco, his brother-in-law Antonio Bastidas, his 
maternal cousin Patricio Noguera, his cousin Cecilia 
Mendagure and her husband Pedro — ^parents of Andres, 
and a number of his captains and officials. They were 
all marched bare-headed into Cuzco, the Visitador 
Areche combing out as far as Urcos to meet them. 



REBELLION OE TUPAC AMARU 205 

They were separated from each other, and told that 
they would not meet again until the day of execution 

On the 15th of May, 1781, Areche pronounced a long 
sentence, in which he announced that it was necessary 
to hasten its execution in order to convince the Indians 
that it was not impossible to put a man of high rank 
to an ignominious death, merely because he was the 
heir of the Incas of Peru. He declared his crimes to 
be rebellion, the destruction of obrajes, the abolition 
of the mitta, and causing pictures to be painted repre- 
senting himself in Incarial robes. He condemned the 
Inca to witness the executions of his wife, his son, his 
uncle, his brother-in-law and cousins, and his cap- 
tains. He was then to have his tongue cut out, and 
afterward to have his limbs secured to the girths of 
four horses dragging different ways until he was torn 
to pieces. His body was to be burned on the heights 
of Picchu, his head to be stuck on a pole at Tinta, 
his arms and legs in four other towns. His houses 
were to be demolished, all his goods to be confiscated, 
his relations to be declared infamous, all documents 
relating to his descent to be burned by the common 
hangman, all dresses used by the Incas to be prohibited, 
all pictures of them to be seized and burned, the repre- 
sentation of Quichua dramas was forbidden, all musi- 
cal instruments of the Indians to be destroyed, all 
Indians to give up their national costumes and to dress 
henceforth in the Spanish fashion, the use of the Qui- 
chua language was prohibited, and the reading of the 
history of the Incas by Garcilasso de la Vega was for- 
bidden. 

In the annals of barbarism there is probably not to 
be found a document equalling this in savage brutality 



] 



2o6 A HISTORY OF PERU 

and folly : and this was written by a Spanish judge, 
barely a century ago. 

The hideous crime was literally carried into effect 
in all its revolting details. On Friday, the i8th of 
May, 1781, after the great square had been surrounded 
by Spanish and negro troops, ten persons were brought 
forth from the church of the Jesuits. One of these 
was the illustrious patriot Tupac Amaru. He had 
been visited, in the early morning in his prison, by 
Areche, who urged him to betray all his accomplices in 
the rebellion. "You and I," he replied, "are the only 
conspirators, you for oppressing the countr}^ with ex- 
actions v/hich were unendurable : and I for having 
wished to free the people from such tyranny. " The 
others were his wife Micaela, his two sons Hipolito and 
Fernando, his brother in-law Antonio Bastidas, his uncle 
Francisco, Tomasa Condemaita a lady of Acos,and three 
captains. Bastidas and the captains were hung at once. 
The rest were heavily chained, tied up in the bags which 
are used for packing ;;z^^/ or Paraguay tea, and dragged 
backward into the centre of the square by horses. 
Francisco and Hipolito Tupac Amaru, the one an old 
man verging on four score, the other a youth of twent}', 
then had their tongues cut out and with Tomasa Con- 
demaita, they were garroted with an iron screw, the 
first that had been seen at Cuzco. Micaela, the be- 
loved and devoted wife of the Inca, was then placed 
on the same scaffold, her tongue was cut out, and the 
screw was placed round her neck, in the presence of 
her agonized husband. She suffered cruelly, because 
her neck was so small that the screw failed to strangle 
her. The executioners then put a lasso round her 
neck and pulled different ways, kicking her in the 
stomach and bosom at the same time until at last they 



REBELLION OF TUPAC AMARU 207 

killed her. The Inca himself was then taken into the 
centre of the square, his chains were removed, and his 
tongue was cut out. He was thrown on the ground, 
lassoes secured to the girths of four horses were fast- 
ened to his wrists and ankles, and the horses were made 
to drag furiously in different directions. As the body- 
was thus raised into the air, the Inca's youngest son 
Fernando, a child of ten years who had been forced 
to witness this hideous massacre of his relations, ut- 
tered a heart rending shriek, the knell of which con- 
tinued to ring in the ears of those who heard it to 
their dying day. It was the death knell of Spanish 
rule in South America. 

But these unspeakable horrors were not yet over. The 
horses did not pull together, and the body remained 
suspended in agony for many minutes. At last the 
brutal miscreant Areche, who was gloating on the 
scene from a window in the college of the expelled 
Jesuits, caused the head to be cut off. The child Fer- 
nando was then passed under the scaffold, and sentenced 
to penal servitude for life. 

It seems necessary to describe these revolting de- 
tails, the exact truth of which is officially attested, 
because they render it quite unnecessary to give a 
moment of further consideration to the reason why 
Spanish rule was hated in Peru. Many of the Span- 
ish citizens of Cuzco were present, but not an Indian 
was to be seen. They afterward declared that, while 
the horses were torturing the Inca, a great wind arose, 
with torrents of rain, and that even the elements were 
horrified. 

The heads, bodies, and limbs of the victims were 
sent to the different towns of Peru and to the villages 
around Cuzco, in order to strike terror into the hearts of 



x 



208 A HISTORY OF PERU 

the Indians. It had exactly the opposite effect. It 
goaded them to fury. By the humane exertions of the 
Inca the war had hitherto been carried on without 
unnecessary bloodshed. But after the perpetration of 
these atrocities in Cuzco, it became a war of extermi- 
nation, and during the following 57ear not less than 
80,000 people fell victims to it. 

Tupac Amaru was a man of whom his nation ma}^ 
well be proud. Having enjoyed the best education 
which Spanish policy permitted to the people of the 
j colonies, he brought a cultivated mind, a clear under- 
standing, and devoted zeal for the welfare of his coun- 
trymen to his important duties as a wealth}^ and in- 
fluential cacique. When he undertook the office of 
defender of the oppressed Indians he displa3^ed an 
amount of patient perseverance and ability in the ad- 
r vocacy of their cause, which excited the admiration of 
/ the bishop of Cuzco, and others of the more enlight- 
ened Spaniards. Finally, after he had unwillingl}^ be- 
come convinced that all remonstrance was useless he, 
in his appeal to arms, combined promptitude of action 
/with great moderation in his demands. His edicts 
were remarkable for their good sense and humanity. 
If his efforts had been met b}^ the Spaniards in a cor- 
responding spirit, the whole course of histor}^ might 
have been changed. 

While these events took place in the valle^^ of the 
Vilcama}^ and at Cuzco, the whole of the Collao was 
in a state of insurrection, and all Spaniards had fled 
for their lives to La Paz and Puno. The town of Puno, 
^ on the shores of Lake Titicaca near the northwest cor- 
ner, had been founded at the time of the Salcedo min- 
ing disturbances, and had become an important place. 
Joaquim Antonio de Orellana, the governor of Puno, 



REBELLION OE TUPAC AMARU 209 

had to defend himself at the head of the fugitive 
Spaniards. On tlie i8th of March, 1781, the Indian 
arni}^ occupied all the surrounding heights. Here the 
dreadful news of the capture and barbarous murder of 
the Inca reached them. They were excited to fury, 
defeating the Spaniards under Mendiosala, capturing 
Chucuito, and committing indiscriminate slaughter in 
revenge for the Inca's death. On the 9th of May, 
Diego Tupac Amaru arrived, and resumed the siege of 
Puno. He was accompanied by Andres Mendagure, 
Mariano the Inca's son, and Miguel Bastidas, a nephew 
of the Inca's wife. They had escaped from Lanqui 
when the other members of the family were captured. 
On the approach of the Spanish army under General 
del Valle, the siege of Puno was raised. Del Valle 
was in a difficult position, owing to want of provis- 
ions. Areche had shamefully neglected the needs of 
the army, being too busy in torturing his prisoners to 
attend to the commissariat. Under these circumstances 
the general reluctantly determined to return to Cuzco, 
taking Orellana and the garrison of Puno with him. 
Puno was evacuated on the 26th of May, and the Span- 
iards commenced their retreat, closely followed and 
constantly harassed by the Indians. General del Valle 
reached Cuzco on the 4th of July, and had a violent 
quarrel with Areche. That infamous wretch had been 
recalled to explain the false accusations he had brought 
against the viceroy Guirior. Arriving at Lima in Au- 
gust, 1781, he embarked for Spain, taking with him the 
poor little boy Fernando, youngest son of the Inca, 
who was condemned to imprisonment for life. Areche 
was heavily fined for his slanders against the vice- 
roy, but he received no further punishment for his 
crimes. 
14 



2IO A HISTORY OF PERU 

Diego Tupac Amaru, after the retreat of General del 
Valle, established his headquarters at Azangaro, which 
thus became for a brief period the capital of the Incas. 
Azangaro is a town nearly 13,000 feet above the sea, on 
a grassy plain with rounded hills forming undulations 
on the west, a long ridge of rocky heights to the north, 
and a fine peaked hill rising up close to the town on 
the south side. A. large river flows southward to Lake 
Titicaca, within a few 3^ards of the eastern end of 
Azangaro. In those da3^s the church, with its low, 
square, red tiled tower, had a magnificent interior ; 
being lined with large copies of old masters in rich!}' 
gilt frames, while the high alter was plated with mas- 
sive silver. Near the church is the house where Diego 
Tupac Amaru lived, with a long sala in which he held 
receptions. A great treasure is believed to have been 
concealed under or near the house, but it has never 
been found. 
The Spaniards had retreated into Cuzco, and all south- 

J ern Peru was in the hands of the Indians,. One cf 
the most active among the officers of Diego Tupac 
Amaru, was his nephew Andres, a son of the Bisca3^an 
Nicolas Mendagure by Felipa the sister of Diego. 
Vilcapasa, a native of Tapatapa, about eighteen miles 
east of Azangaro, was a much older man, and the 
ablest general in the native army. He was devoted 
to young Andres, who was a handsome and gallant youth 
of about eighteen summers. Their quarters at Azangaro 
were in the house of the Hispanicized Cacique Chu- 
quihuanca, where still stands a circular edifice, with a 
most remarkable roof of the time of the Incas, called 
Sondor-huasi. From Azangaro young Andres, accom- 

r panied by Vilcapasa, overran the provinces on the 
eastern side of Lake Titicaca and captured the town of 



REBELLION OF TUPAC AMARU 211 

Sorata. Returning to Azangaro his visits became fre- 
quent to the house of Vilcapasa's sister, where dwelt 
the beautiful Angelina Sevilla ; and the friendship of 
the young people ripened into love. But evil days 
were at hand. The hopes of the people were begin- 
ning to wane. The time was not yet ripe for independ- 
ence. Large reinforcements were gathering both on 
the side of Buenos Ayres and Lima. The slaughter 
of the Indians had already been prodigious, and the 
viceroy Jauregui issued a proclamation, in September, 
1 781, offering a free pardon to Diego Tupac Amaru 
and all his adherents, on submission. 

Dr. Antonio Valdez,cura of Sicuani and the intimate 
friend of the murdered Lica, was sent to Azangaro to 
persuade Diego to submit. They held their confer- 
ences on the subject, while walking up and down on 
the banks of the river. Vilcapasa overheard one of 
these conversations, and remonstrated strongly against 
the madness of believing the word of a Spaniard. But 
Angelina united her praN^ers with those of Dr. Valdez, 
and Diego yielded. He sent Miguel Bastidas to open 
a negotiation with the Spanish Colonel Reseguin, 
and on December nth, 1781, Diego Tupac Amaru, with 
the two youths Andres and Mariano, surrendered. Bas- 
tidas was sent to Buenos Ayres. Diego received his 
full pardon from General del Valle at Sicuani, on Jan- 
uary 26th, 1782, and in order to add sacrilege to per- 
fidy, the bishop of Cuzco solemnly absolved him in 
the church. 

Vilcapasa knew the Spaniards too well. He refused 
to submit, and held out for some time. But he was 
defeated by General del Valle, captured in his native 
village, and torn to pieces by horses in the square of 
Azangaro. His limbs were stuck on poles by the road 



/ 



212 A HISTORY OF PERU 

side. The old general was taken ill soon afterward. 
He died at Cuzco on the 4th of September, 1782, and 
was succeeded in command of the troops by Don Gab- 
riel de Aviles. 

Diego was allowed to retire to Tungasuca ; while 
y Andres and Mariano lived at Sicuani. But the Span- 
ish authorities acted treacherously throughout. They 
never at any time intended to keep faith with the un- 
fortunate Incas, as Vilcapasa foresaw. In January, 1783, 
all the surviving members of the Incarial famil}^ were 
arrested. The accusations against them were frivolous 
and without a shadow of proof to sustain them. Die- 
go Tupac Amaru was accused of calling the Indians 
his sons, and of performing funeral rites for his cousin 
the Inca. The charge against Andres was suspicious 
conduct. Mariano's crime was the rescue of his lady 
love from the nunnery of Santa Catalina at Cuzco, 
where she was kept against her will. The rest of the 
family were accused of being relations. Matta Linares, 
scenting carrion from afar, hurried from Lima to imi- 
tate the work of Areche. Diego Tupac Amaru was 
sentenced to be dragged at the tail of a mule, with a 
rope round his neck, to the great square of Cuzco and 
there to be hanged and quartered. His mother was 
sentenced to be hanged and quartered, and her body 
to be burned before his eyes. Several other relations 
were to be strangled. These judicial murders were 
committed on the 19th of July, 1783. Dr. Valdez, the 
cura of Sicuani, was forced to witness the slaughter of 
his friends and his own dishonor, for he it was who 
had persuaded them to put their trust in the viceroy's 
word. Andres and Mariano were sent to Lima, put 
on board a ship, butchered at sea, and their bodies 
thrown overboard. When the news reached Azangaro 



REBELLION OE TUPAC AMARU 213 

long afterward, Angelina, the betrothed bride of Andres, 
died of a broken heart. 

The viceroy then proceeded to extirpate the famil3^ 
of the Inca, and all who were connected with it by 
marriage. Ninety members of the family were sent 
in chains to Lima. Among them was Marcela Pallo- 
cahua, mother of the Inca's wife, Micaela Bastidas, and 
Bartolome Tupac Amaru, the Inca's great uncle. A 
life of activity and temperance had given this aged 
prince the strength to endure months of solitary con- 
finement in a dungeon at Cuzco, to sustain blows from 
muskets and staves in the great square, to undergo a 
cruel journey on foot and in chains of four hundred 
miles, but the horrors of the prison at Lima killed him. 
He had reached the extraordinary age of one hundred 
\'ears. The unhappy survivors were shipped off at 
Callao, in two vessels, and treated with shocking in- 
humanity. After three years in a prison at Cadiz, 
Charles III. caused them to be distributed, apart from 
each other, in prisons in the interior of Spain, where 
they lingered until their sufferings were relieved b}' 
death. 

Fernando, the youngest child of the Inca, whose 
shrill cry smote every heart with electric S3^mpathy 
when he was forced to look on at the cruel tortures of 
his parents, was taken to Spain by Areche in 1781. 
He was then only ten years of age. In 1783, Don Luis 
Ocampo, a citizen of Cuzco, went to Spain and heard 
that young Fernando Tupac Amaru was a close pris- 
oner in the castle of San Sebastian at Cadiz. Through 
the aid of an Irish gentleman, who was intimately ac- 
quainted with the town major, Ocampo applied for a pass 
to visit the poor child, but was refused. He, never- 
theless, made his way into the fort and, looking around 



/ 



214 A HISTORY OF PERU 

at the iron gratings of the cells, he at length caught sight 
of a bo}^ whose countenance bespoke his origin. While 
talking to him Ocampo received a blow from the 
butt end of the musket of a Swiss sentry whom, how- 
ever, he induced to permit him to continue the conversa- 
tion. He found that the government allowed Fernan- 
do six reals a day for maintenance, but that the sol- 
diers of the guard stole half. Ocampo gave him two 
or three dollars a week during his stay in Cadiz. This 
is the last that was ever heard, for a certainty, of the 
last surviving child of the unfortunate Inca. His fate 
is unknown. In 1828 a person calling himself Fernan- 
do Tupac Amaru made his appearance at Buenos Ayres 
and he went on to Lima. He became a monk at San 
Pedro where he died. But he is believed to have been 
an impostor. 

Such was the fate of the last of the Incas. It is one 
of the saddest stories in the record of human suffering. 
Yet Tupac Amaru and his family did not suffer and 
die in vain. Unlike most dispossessed royal races 
they sacrificed themselves, not for their own selfish 
ends, but in the hope of serving their countr37men. 
The reforms which Tupac Amaru demanded were con- 
ceded almost as soon as his family had been destroyed. 
His fall, and the circumstances attending it, shook the 
colonial power of Spain to its foundation. From his 
cruel death may be dated the rise of that indignant 
feeling which ended in the expulsion of the Spaniards 
from Peru. The Inca Tupac Amaru did not live and 
die in vain. 



3 



CHAPTER IX 

EVE OF THE REVOLUTION 

It usually happens that retribution fails to overtaKe 
the most guilt}^, and that the crimes of rulers are 
avenged on their more deserving successors. Revolu- 
tion comes when things are improving, when better 
government enables the people to feel their strength, 
and not at the time of their greatest misery. After the 
final suppression of the Indian revolt, there was cer- 
tainly a marked and growing improvement in the con- 
dition of Peru. When Don Agustin de Jauregui was 
called upon to report on the causes which led to the 
discontent of the people, he told the old stor}^ — injus- 
tice of the mitia and misery caused by it, forced labor 
in the mines, and exactions of the priests. He recom- 
mended fair treatment of the Indians, equal justice, 
and more moderate demands on labor. This viceroy 
gave up charge in April, 1784, and died from the effects 
of an accident a few days afterward. His successor 
was Don Teodoro de Croix, a tall, handsome soldier, 
native of Lille in Flanders. He had served on the So- 
nora frontier when his brother, the Marquis de Croix, 
was viceroy of Mexico. His period of office witnessed 
the inauguration of reforms to secure which Tupac 

Amaru died. The corregidors were abolished, and a 

215 



2i6 A HISTORY OF PERU 

court of appeal was established at Cuzco, for hearing 
native causes. In i784jt was resolved, in accordance 
with the plan of Tupac' Amaru, to abolish the office of 
corregidors, and to divide Peru into seven large pro- 
vinces, called intendencias,, governed by officers called 
intendentes directly responsible to the viceroy. The 
intendencias were divided- into districts called paj^tidos, 
under sub-delegados who'^eceived their orders from the 
i7itendentes. These divisions correspond to the depart- 
ments 'd.Vidi provinces of . the republic. The Audience of 
Cuzco, forming a court of appeal for the natives, was 
installed in November, 1788, in accordance with the de- 
mand of Tupac Amaru." A financial committee was 
also established at Lim'^, chiefly with the object of 
enforcing a uniform system of accounts throughout the 
colonies. Don Teodoro de Croix retired in 1790, re- 
turning to Spain by way of Cape Horn, and leaving 
behind him a good reputation as an upright, kind- 
hearted and religious man. 

The next viceroy, Don Francisco Gil de Taboada y 
Lemos came from New Grana'da where he had held the 
viceroyalty for some years. A native of Galicia and a 
sailor, he had the rank of admiral in the fleet. He 
was also an ardent reformer, an able administrator, a 
lover of letters, and an active friend to literature. He 
encouraged the assemblage of learned men, and under 
his friendly auspices thought was set free and liberal 
ideas began to prevail. The claws of the inquisition 
had already been cut, though it still existed. The 
vicero37, in consultation with literary friends such as 
Drs. Gabriel Moreno and Hipolito Unanue, two men 
of high scientific attainments, projected the publica- 
tion of a periodical called the "Mercurio Peruano. " 
Several military officers and literary ecclesiastics gave 



EVE OF THE REVOLUTION 217 

their support, and the first number appeared on Janu- 
ar}'^ ist, 1791. The contributors formed a society, or 
club entitled "Amantes del Pais." A room at the uni- 
versity was set apart for their meetings, by order of 
the viceroy. The editors of the "Mercurio Peruano" 
completed twelve volumes from 1791 to 1794, ^^^^ ^^ 
useful topographical, statistical, and scientific inform- 
ation. From 1793 to 1798 an annual Official Guide 
was published, under the editorship of Dr. Unanue, 
and the viceroy also began the publication of a Ga- 
zette. His interest in the navy led the viceroy to 
form a nautical school, and to open a hydrographic office 
for the sale of charts. Great encouragement was also 
given the exploration of the courses of the great trib- 
utaries of the Amazon, especially the Uca3^ali, by 
missionaries under the lead of Sobreviela and Fray 
Narcisco Girbal. The expedition of Captain Alejandro 
Malaspina, in command of the two corvettes Descii- 
bierta and Atrevida, was intended to fix positions along 
the coast of the Spanish colonies. A surve}/ was made 
of the west coast of South America, with plans of ports, 
and much statistical and geographical information 
was collected. Malaspina returned to Cadiz in Sep- 
tember, 1794, and published a narrative of his voyage. 
The Bohemian botanist, Tadeo Haenke, came out with 
Malaspina in 1790. He devoted himself to the study 
of the botany of Peru, and to him belongs the honor of 
having discovered the C. Calisaya, the most valuable 
of the quinine yielding trees. Haenke died at Cocha- 
bamba in December, 1817, leaving many valuable con- 
tributions to science. The viceroy took a deep interest 
in these surveys and scientific investigations. He 
also superintended the preparation of a map of Peru 
by the hydrographer Andres Baleato, which was used 



2i8 A HISTORY OF PERU 

to illustrate the elaborate memoir on his administration. 
It was in his time that the existing towers of the Lima 
cathedral were built between 1794 and 1797. Don 
Francisco Gil was the best and most enlightened of 
the vicero37s of Peru. He returned to Spain in 1796, 
became director-general of marine, and died in 1810. 

Some valuable statistical information was collected 
by the viceroy Gil, and published in 1794. By this 
report it appears that the population of the seven /;/- 
tendencias into which Peru was divided was 1,076,997. 
These intendencias were Lima, Cuzco, Guamanga, 
Arequipa, Tarma, Huancavelica and Truxillo. Of this 
population 608,912 were Indians, 244,437 half castes, 
136,311 of pure Spanish descent, and 80,000 negroes 
on the coast. When Toledo numbered the Peruvian 
Indians in 1575, there were 8,000,000. In 1794 there were 
5,496 religious persons, composed of 3,018 secular 
priests, 2,217 monks and friars, 1,044 nuns and 271 
beatas This enumeration takes no account of the wild 
Indians of the montana, in the Amazonian basin. The 
report also contains some financial and commercial 
statistics. The receipts were $6,393,206; expenditure, 
$4,082,313, leaving a surplus of $2,935,106 for trans- 
mission to Spain. The tithes for the clergy averaged 
$291,867 a year, besides fees. The trade between Peru 
and Spain in 1791 was represented by $4,183,865 worth 
of imports, and $5,699,590 of exports. The tribute 
exacted from the Indians amounted to $885,586. 

The next viceroy was Don Ambrosio O'Higgins, Mar- 
quis of Osorno, whose history was a ver}^ remarkable 
one. A little Irish boy named Ambrose Higgins was 
born, in about 1740, near the castle of Dangan, on the 
estate of Summerhill, in county Meath, and he was 
employed to carry letters to the post for Lady Bective. 



EVE OF THE REVOLUTION 219 

He had an uncle who was a priest at Cadiz, to whom 
he was sent to be educated. When the priest wished 
to settle his young nephew in life, he sent him out in 
a ship bound for Lima, with a small packet of goods 
for sale. But the boy landed at Buenos Ayres, and 
he rode over the pampas and the Cordillera to Santi- 
ago. He went thence to Lima, and opened a little 
shop under the platform of the cathedral. He hawked 
about his goods as a pedlar in the streets, but found 
few to buy them. Returning to Chile, he obtained 
permission to construct the casiiclias or resting-places 
for travelers in the pass over the cordillera. This led 
to other employment, and eventually he got a commis- 
sion in the army. Being second in command on the 
Araucanian frontier, he showed so much tact and judg- 
ment in his dealings with the Indians, that he was 
selected for the chief command at Concepcion. There 
he received La Perouse with great courtesy. He 
must have romanced a little about his origin, for La 
Perouse speaks of M. Higuins as belonging to one of 
those families which were persecuted for their old at- 
tachment to the House of Stuart. But the French offi- 
cer was most favorably impressed by the young Irish- 
man, for whom he felt an affection after the first hour's 
conversation. The French government applied strongly 
for his promotion, and in 1788 he became captain-gen- 
eral of Chile. At this time he prefixed the O' to his 
name of Higgins as being more aristocratic. He con- 
structed the road from Santiago to Valparaiso, and 
ameliorated the condition of laborers on the estates, 
who were then little better than slaves. The captain- 
general sent some money to bankers in London, to be 
distributed among his relations. Inquiries were made 
through Mr. Kellett, the priest at Summerhill, whether 



220 A HISTORY OF PERU 

it would be better to give it to them in a lump or by 
degrees, but the latter plan was considered best, as they 
were found to be very poor and improvident. O'Hig- 
gins was created Marquis of Osorno and Baron of Bal- 
lenar, and on June 5th, 1796, he made his public entry 
into Lima as viceroy of Peru. He always retained a 
strong Irish brogue. He died rather suddenly at Lima 
in March, 1801, leaving a natural son named Bernardo, 
destined to be the liberator of Chile, and a daughter. 

Gabriel Aviles, Marquis of Aviles, who succeeded the 
Marquis of Osorno, was a ver}^ different man. He had 
been upward of twent}^ years in South America as a 
military officer, and had been guilty of great cruelty at 
the time of insurrection of Tupac Amaru. Indeed 
he was in command of the troops at Cuzco during thg 
atrocious execution of the Inca. He succeeded O'Hig- 
gins as captain-general of Chile, and was vicero}^ of 
Buenos Ayres when he was summoned to Lima in 
1801. A penurious financier, Aviles undertook no pub- 
lic work and promoted no useful measure. He died at 
Valparaiso in 1806, when about to embark for Spain. 

Don Jose Fernando Abascal, a native of Oviedo, en- 
tered the arm}' as a cadet in 1762, and had seen much 
service in various parts of the world. He made a re- 
markable journe}^ from Brazil over land, and entered 
Lima, in July, 1806. Abascal was viceroy of Peru from 
July, 1806 to July, 1816. He felt that the revolutionary 
ideas of France were spreading over the world, and 
that their influence would be felt in South America. 
He resolved to strive to avert the danger by military 
vigilance and a policy of active usefulness. He intro- 
duced vaccination, founded a hospital attached to 
the medical college which was established in 1792, 
prohibited burials in the Lima churches, and built a 



EVE OE THE REVOLUTION 221 

pantheon outside the town. He organized an efficient 
army, built the artillery barrack of Santa Catalina at 
Lima, and cast upward of fifty four pound field-pieces. 
General Pezuela, who arrived from Europe in 1805, 
was inspector of artillery. The viceroy Abascal was 
a statesman of great ability and foresight. But he was 
devoted to the interests of the mother country. He 
maintained the monopoly of the Cadiz merchants, raised 
the customs and excise duties and in 1811 sent $2,000, - 
000 home to Spain. 

All great revolutions, like armies on the march, ad- 
vance toward the unknown future with pioneers in 
front. Such. men are sometimes a century, sometimes 
a few years, in advance of the general movement. They 
often point out or shed light on the paths of progress 
by their sufferings, sometimes by their life's blood. 

The pioneers of Peruvian independence were Don 
Toribio Rodriguez de Mendoza, rector of the college 
of San Carlos at Lima, and Don Jedro Jose Chavez 
de la Rosa, bishop of Arequipa from 1788 to i8og. 
The bishop undertook not only to reform what existed, 
but to create what did not exist. His teaching was 
denounced, and he was looked upon as a criminal by 
the Spanish authorities. The college of San Geronimo 
at Arequipa was the theatre of his fruitful labors. 
His pupils became most ardent advocates of reform. 
The most beloved among them were the illustrious 
Luna Pizarro, a statesman of the independence and 
finally archbishop of Lima, and Gonzalez Vigil, after- 
ward the most profound scholar in Peru. The influ- 
ence these and other pupils of the good bishop had on 
their generation is incalculable. Dr. Chavez de la 
Rosa returned to Spain, where he sighed for the 
peaceful rest of some of the little church commu- 



222 HISTORY OF PERU 

nities he had founded in the Andes. Disgraced by 
the despot Ferdinand VII, he died penniless in his 
native village of Chiclano in 1819. His funeral ora- 
tion was pronounced at Arequipa b}^ one of his attached 
pupils, Andres Martinez. The other inspirer of revolu- 
tionary ideas, Rodriguez de Mendoza, was born at Cha- 
chapoyas, in the forests of the Maraiion. Intrepid con- 
stancy and manful energ}^ were combined in him with 
lofty virtue and enthusiastic love of science. The 
universality of his learning earned for him the title of 
"the Bacon of Peru." He was rector of the college of 
San Carlos, which was established in the cloisters made 
vacant b}^ the expulsion of the Jesuits, for thirt}^ years. 
From 1 810 the Peruvian revolution had one of its 
centres in the college of San Carlos, and its life giver, 
the liberality of whose teaching advanced with giant 
strides, was the illustrious rector. The college of 
medicine, presided over hy Dr. Unanue, and the ora- 
tory of St. Philip Neri were also centres of liberal ideas, 
where man}^ young students imbibed the feelings of 
their teachers. 

But the lawyers held back. Though there were 
hundreds of doctors of law at Lima, only very few 
were distinguished as patriots. Among those few were 
Jose de la Riva Aguero, the first of the graduates of 
San Marcos who became an agitator and a soldier; 
Manuel Telleria, and Mariano Alvarez, true and con- 
stant friends of liberty. Still the apathy of the uni- 
versit}^ formed a contrast to the fervent zeal of some of 
the clergy. It was a priest who first raised the cr}' of 
rebellion, and there were several advanced patriots 
among the village curas, while monks of the different 
orders fomented liberal ideas in the capital. Most fa- 
mous among them was a Chilean named Camilo Enri- 



EVE OE THE REVOLUTION 223 

quez, who had become a monk of the brotherhood of 
Buena Miierte at Lima. He was accused before the 
inquisition in 1809 and fled to his own country, where 
he began to write in praise of freedom in a periodical 
which he called the "Aurora de Chile." 

The nobility and even the ladies of Lima caught 
the infection of liberal ideas. The secret club of the 
most ardent conspirators was held in the house of 
the Countess of Gisla. The ladies of Lima promoted 
the cause of liberty by their enthusiasm and their 
sympathy. Their singular walking costume, called the 
'^saya y mauto'^ gave them a mysterious impunity, and 
was a most useful agent of plots for the advancement 
of the liberal cause. It was the influence of ladies 
which enlisted the goodwill of many officers in the 
royal army. 

The first sufferers in the cause were two harmless 
visionaries. Their story seems worthy of preservation, 
Manuel Ubalde was a lawyer who practised before the 
Royal Audience. One day a gentleman of Huanuco, 
named Jose Gabriel Aguilar, called upon him and 
asked him to defend his suit. The intercourse thus 
commenced ripened into firm and close friendship. 
Aguilar was a visionar}^, and when he set out to return 
to Huanuco, he announced to Ubalde that a dream had 
revealed to him that he must lead a wandering life 
until, in some city, he should find another Christ ex- 
actly like that which was worshipped at the church of 
the Descalzos in Lima. 

For many years the two friends lost sight of each 
other. When Count Ruiz de Castilla went to Cuzco 
as president of the Royal Audience, he took Ubalde 
with him as an assessor. But the appointment was 
not confirmed, the lawyer and his family being left in 



224 A HISTORY OF PERU 

the deepest destitution. Nearly driven to desperation 
he was wandering down one of the streets of Cuzco, 
when his old friend Aguilar rushed into his arms. He 
had found the exact counterpart of the Christ of the 
Descalzos at Cuzco, and was going to remain there. 
The two men combined to work some gold mines in 
the eastern forests, which had been revealed to them 
in their visions. Frequent visionary conversations led 
them to entertain the idea of a revolution. A noctur- 
nal revelation to Ubalde raised their hopes. He dreamed 
that an eagle came toward Cuzco from the shores of 
the Pacific, and that another eagle met it, coming 
from the east. One came alone, but the other carried 
on four huge feathers that projected from its wings, as 
many armed men with glittering swords. These men 
were the dreamer himself, his friend Aguilar, and two 
intimates at Cuzco named Ampuero and Ugarte. When 
the eagles met, they flew at each other, and gradually 
rose out of sight, while the four men fell among armed 
hosts which proclaimed them their leaders. The in- 
terpretation put upon this dream by the friends was 
that America was to rise against Spain, and that they 
were to be the prophets and chiefs of the insurrection. 
The conversations of these visionaries were repeated 
to the authorities. Ubalde and Aguilar were arrested, 
and both were executed in the great square of Cuzco. 
They were punished for a dream, an idea. But it was 
an idea which was destined to become a reality. The 
incident shows how liberal ideas were seething in men's 
minds, while the extreme severity of the authorities is 
a measure of their terror and anxiety. 

The initiative to resistance was given, though timidly, 
by four learned teachers in Lima, in the year 1808. 
These were Don Hipolito Unanue, the cosmographer 



EVE OF THE REVOLUTION 225 

and chief ph^^sicianjDon Jose Gregorio Paredes, a pro- 
fessor of mathematics, Don Jose Pezet, the editor of 
the Lima Gazette, and Don Gaviano Chacaltana of Yea, 
professor of anatomy, and a man of considerable talent. 
They assembled in one of the rooms of the medical col- 
ege of San Fernando at Lima, and reasoned over the des- 
tinies of America, over the rights of the colonists, and 
the best form of government for them. But their dis- 
courses were denounced to the viceroy Abascal, and 
a few private hints from him were sufficient to silence 
the timid patriots. Still they had sown good seed. 
For in the next 3'ear a law agent named Pardo, and a 
young advocate named Mateo Silva, held numerously 
attended evening parties, which were frequented by 
the rising 3^oung men of Lima, who discussed the 
news of the da}'. Suddenl}^ Silva and Pardo were ar- 
rested by order of the viceroy. Silva was condemned 
to ten 3^ears of close imprisonment, Pardo was sent to 
Spain, and man}^ others were confined in the fortress 
of Valdivia in Chile. In spite of this tyranny the 
people of Lima continued to meet, but more secretly, 
first at the Caballo Blanco opposite the church of St. 
Augustine, then at Bartolo, or at the Cafe de Comercio 
in the Calle de Bodegones. Here they discussed the 
news of insurrections in various parts of South America, 
and devised plans for the realization of their hopes of 
freedom. 

The young advocate, Jose de la Riva Aguero, be- 
came the ringleader of these secret societies. Allied 
to the colonial nobility, making common cause with 
educated men by reason of his learning and his pro- 
fession, with popular manners, and recently re;;urned 
from a visit to Madrid, he was well fitted for the work 
of organizing a secret combination. But he was an 



226 A HISTORY OF PERU 

agitator, rather than a leader of men, a conspirator 
rather than a revolution maker. The secret clubs be- 
gan to meet in his house, and in that of the Count de 
la Vega, sometimes in rooms hired in the suburbs. The 
duties of the members were to gain proselytes in all 
ranks to propagate liberal ideas and when possible to 
embarrass the government. One place of meeting was 
the workshop of a silver-smith, on the very spot where 
the men of Chile assembled, before they rushed out to 
murder the Marquis Pizarro. 

In September, 1810, Riva Aguero was suddenl}^ ar- 
rested, and sent to Tarma in the interior. Don Jose 
Baquijano, the Count of Vista Florida, then put him- 
self at the head of the constitutional party. Born at 
Lima of wealthy parents, he was distinguished as a 
student, and became director of studies at the univer- 
sity of San Marcos from 1806 to 1814. Well versed 
in history, a poet and an admirable writer, he had 
been president of the society of "Amantes del Pais," 
and wrote in the "Mercuric Peruano" under the name 
of "Cephalic." The regenc}^ of Spain made him a 
councillor of state in 1812, and his popularity in Lima, 
which was very distasteful to the vicero}^ Abascal, was 
unbounded. He privately discussed and advocated 
the independence of Peru, and his influence gave con 
siderable impetus to the spread of liberal ideas. There 
were insurrections, promptly suppressed, at Tacna and 
Huanuco in 1812. A newspaper, called "El Peruano," 
was started in consequence of the Cortes at Cadiz 
having proclaimed the liberty of the press in iSio, but 
it was suppressed by Abascal within a few months of 
its first issue. One popular movement, however, could 
not be put down. When news of the abolition of the 
inquisition by the Spanish Cortes reached Lima, the 



EVE OE THE REVOLUTION 227 

people rose on the 3rd of September, 1813, broke into 
the prison of the Holy Office, destroyed the archives, 
and smashed the instruments of torture amidst great 
rejoicings. 

The invasion of Spain by the Emperor Napoleon 
was the immediate cause of the revolt of the colonies. 
A regency was organized at Cadiz. All parties were 
unanimous in refusing to acknowledge Joseph Bona- 
parte. But while the Spanish authorities in America 
recognized the Cadiz regency, the colonists as a body 
declared that they would organize native governments 
while the king was imprisoned. On September i8th, 
1810, the Chileans proclaimed an independent y>///^'(? de 
Gobierfio \ but in 1813 and i8i4the viceroy sent troops 
from Lima, totally defeated the rebels, and restored 
Spanish rule in Chile. At Buenos Ayres a similar 
revolution was successful, and in 1813 Geneal Bel- 
grano was sent to oppose the forces of the viceroy in 
upper Peru. General Goyeneche was selected, by Abas- 
cal, to command the army destined to suppress these 
risings, with Juan Ramirez as his second in command. 
He defeated the rebels in every encounter, carried all 
before him, and inflicted unsparing punishment. As 
many as eighty-six priests, law^^ers, and other leaders of 
the people were sentenced to death, imprisonment, for- 
feiture of goods, or corporal punishment. Goyeneche 
then retired to Cuzco, leaving Ramirez in command at 
La Paz. 

The revolutionary party at Buenos Ayres sent another 
expedition to upper Peru under Colonel Valcarce, ac- 
companied by Dr. Castelli to represent the new gov- 
ernment. Chuquisaca, Potosi, and La Paz declared in 
their favor. Castelli, with a considerable force, then 
marched tov/ard the river Desaguadero. He advanced 



228 A HISTORY OF PERU 

to Huaqui, sending cavalry to watch the bridge over 
the river. Goyeneche had not been idle. He had organ- 
ized militia regiments, had received reinforcements 
from Lima, and was encamped at Zepita, near the 
south-west angle of Lake Titicaca. He resolved to 
give battle. At midnight he advanced" his army of 
6,500 men to the bridge over the Desaguadero, and on 
the 20th of June, 181 i,he came in sight of the enemy in a 
strong position, with twelve pieces of artillery at Hua- 
qui. A vigorous assault was made by the militia of 
Cuzco under Colonel Picoaga, all the guns were cap- 
tured, and Castelli fled. He returned to Buenos A3Tes, 
but the patriots of upper Peru still held out around Co- 
chabamba and Potosi. They were routed near Sipe-sipe 
in August, but General Belgrano once more approached 
with help. At this critical juncture, when the contest 
w^as still doubtful, General Goyeneche resigned. He 
returned to Spain in 1814, was created Count of Hua- 
qui, and eventuall}^ a Grandee. His brother Jose Se- 
bastian Goyeneche became bishop of Arequipa in 1816, 
and after forty-three years was transferred to the arch- 
bishopric of Lima. The brothers were both enormously 
rich. 

On the retirement of Goyeneche the dut}^ of oppos- 
ing the advance of Belgrano devolved on General Don 
Joaquin de la Pezuela and Juan Ramirez. 

Meanwhile Mateo Garcia Pumacagua,the aged cacique 
of Chinchero, who had taken the side of the Span- 
iards against the Inca Tupac Amaru, had repented and 
joined the patriot cause. On the 3rd of August, 1814, 
he raised the cry of independence at Cuzco. He was 
joined by three brothers Vicente, Mariano, and Jose 
Angulo, by Don Gabriel Bejar, Hurtado de Mendoza, 
Domingo Luis Astete, Pinelo, Santiago Prado, and 



E VE OE THE RE VOL UTION 229 

others. The brothers Angulo were men of low birth, 
and vulgar both in their language and their persons ; 
but Astete and Prado were gentlemen of good family 
and position. So unanimous was the feeling against*' 
Spanish rule, that the whole population of Cuzco 
joined heart and soul in the insurrection. 

Having occupied Cuzco, the patriots divided their 
forces into three divisions, which separated in different 
directions, to excite the other provinces to revolt. Ma- 
riano Angulo, Bejar, and Mendoza (who was nicknamed 
Santafecino ) marched to Guamanga, and were joined 
by alarge body of Morochuco Indians. Colonel Vicente 
Gonzalez was sent against them from Lima, and de- 
feated them near Guanta, but the countr}' remained in 
a disordered state until Santafecino was finally routed 
at Matara in April, 1815. Pinela and the cura of 
Munecas entered Puno without resistance on August 
2gth, 1814, advanced to La Paz, and, after a siege of 
two days, took that town by assault on the 24th of 
February. In October, General Ramirez advanced from 
Oruro with 1,200 men, attacked the insurgents on the 
heights of La Paz, who numbered five hundred armed 
with muskets and the rest with slings. The}^ retreated 
in good order and Ramirez occupied La Paz, reached 
Puno on November 23rd, and pressed on to Arequipa. 

Pumacagua himself, with Vicente Angulo, and the 
main body of the Cuzco patriots marched to Arequipa. 
They encountered the Spanish troops under Brigadier 
Picoaga in the plain of Cangallo, and defeated them, 
taking Picoaga prisoner. Pumacagua entered Arequipa 
in triumph, where the greatest enthusiasm prevailed for 
the cause of independence. People of all races and i^ 
classes were burning to throw off -the yoke of Spain. 
Among others the poet Melgar joined the national 



230 A HISTORY OF PERU 

army. Mariano Melgar was an enthusiastic youth who 
had suffered from unrequited love. The fair object of 
his affections named Paredes, a blonde of exceeding 
beauty, married another and Melgar was plunged in grief. 
His plaintive sonnets are written both in Spanish and 
in Quichua, and some of his despedidas possess poetic 
merit which raise them above mediocrity. Melgar 
became secretary to Vicente Angulo. 

On the approach of Ramirez, the cacique Pumacagua 
evacuated Arequipa and manoeuvred for some da3's on 
the lofty plain between Apo and the post house of 
Pati. Ramirez steadily advanced, and came in sight 
of the patriot army at a little hut called Chillihua, near 
the head of the "Alto de los Huesos, " on the south 
flank of the Misti volcano, which overhangs Arequipa. 
Pumacagua, avoiding a battle, retreated hastily over 
the snowy Cordilleras, and Ramirez entered Arequipa 
without opposition on the gth of December. His 
first act was to shoot Don Juan Astete, and others who 
had compromised themselves during the time that 
Pumacagua was in the city. 

The enthusiasm of the Indians w^as so great that, 
notwithstanding the affair at Chillihua, which one au- 
thority describes as a retreat and another as a disas- 
trous defeat, they again flocked to the standard of the 
old cacique, when he reached Pucara in the Collao. 
He soon had an undisciplined half-armed force around 
him, numbering 40,000 men. Ramirez organized a 
body of 1,200 men, armed with muskets, and fift}/ dra- 
goons, and commenced his march from Arequipa on 
the nth of February, 1815. On the ist of March he 
encamped around the town of Lampa, which is twenty 
miles south of Pucara. On that day he received a 
letter from Vicente Angulo, protesting against the war 



EVE OE THE REVOLUTION 231 

being carried on in a savage and relentless spirit, rep- 
resenting that when a whole people rises in arms, the 
insurgents should be granted belligerent rights, and 
urging the propriety of concluding the war by negotia- 
tion and not by bloodshed. "It is not fear, " concluded 
Angulo, "that prompts me to write thus, but a feeling 
of humanity. " Ramirez replied that he would listen 
tc nothing but unconditional surrender. On the 4th 
he advanced to Ayaviri, on the Vilcaiiota pass which 
separates the Collao from the valley of the Vilcamayu. 
Here he received a letter from Pumacagua. The aged 
cacique asked the Spanish general for whom he was 
fighting, seeing that Ferdinand VII. had been sold 
to the French? He declared that there was now no 
other rule but the caprice of Europeans, and that he 
desired to establish a national government. Ramirez 
answered that a general of the king's army would not 
waste words with vile and insolent rebels, and that 
his bayonets would soon make them alter their tone. 

From the 6th to the loth of March the two armies 
marched on parallel lines, separated by the rivers 
Umachiri and A3^aviri. On the loth Pumacagua drew 
up his forces behind a stream called Cupi, which had 
been swollen by the rains. He had only eight hundred 
men armed with muskets, and forty field-pieces cast at 
Cuzco by an Englishmen named George. The rest 
were unarmed Indians. Ramirez had 1,300 disciplined 
and well armed soldiers. During the night the Span- 
iards were annoyed by fire from the patriot field guns. 
At dawn they waded across the Cupi, near Umachiri, 
in spite of opposition. They then charged along the 
whole line, dispersed the Indians, killed a thousand 
men, and captured all the guns. The rout was com- 
plete. There was one little boy among the fugitives, 



232 A HISTORY OF PERU 

named Miguel San Roman, who lived to be president 
of Peru. His father escaped only to be shot by the 
relentless Spaniards in the square of Puno, but the 
son hurried down to join the liberators when the}^ ap- 
peared off the coast in 1822, and fought in their ranks 
until no Spaniard remained in Peru. The poet Mel- 
gar was taken prisoner, and immediately shot on the 
battle field. Ramirez marched to Cuzco, where he 
arrived on the 25th. He despatched a portion of his 
troops to pursue the fugitives, who were again defeated 
near Azangaro. The Spaniards cut off the ears of all 
their prisoners, flogged them cruell}^, and sent them 
awa}' to tell their comrades that they would be treated 
in the same way unless they instantly laid down their 
arms. The Indians fled over the hills, followed b}^ the 
Spaniards, who again defeated them near Asillo. 
Among the prisoners at Asillo were the mutilated 
Indians who had been sent to terrif}' the rest, still 
fighting bravely against their t3^rants. Of such heroism 
is the usually meek and docile Indian capable. 

After the battle of Umachiri, old Pumacagua escaped 
to the height of Marangani, but he was betrayed by 
a man whom he had sent down to procure food, and 
brought a prisoner to Sicuani. He was seventy-seven 
years of age, and had repented the error of his youth 
in joining the enemies of his country against the Inca. 
His captors knew no mercy. He was hanged, not 
with a proper halter, but with a lasso. Jose, Mariano, 
and Vicente Angulo, Gabriel Bejar, and many others 
were shot by order of Ramirez, at Cuzco. Thus ended 
the last great rising of the Indians under one of their 
own chiefs, after a campaign which lasted ten months. 

General Pezuela had been placed in a critical posi- 
tion by the insurrection of Pumacagua in his rear and 



EVE OE THE REVOLUTION 233 

the necessity for detaching the force under Ramirez. 
P'or he was encamped at Luipacha, with the hostile 
army of Belgrano, fresh from Buenos Ayres, in his front. 
He, however, encountered his enemy at Ayohuma, in 
the province of Cochabamba, and the battle which fol- 
lowed ended in the total rout of Belgrano. 

Vengeance was then wreaked on the Indians of the 
Collao who had supported Pumacagua, by Colonel 
Gonzalez, whose cruelty obtained for him the post of 
intendente of Puno. He fought several actions with 
detached bodies of armed insurgents, killing all his 
prisoners and sticking their heads on poles, in the differ- 
ent villages. He was reluctantly aided by Lieutenant- 
Colonel Gamarra, a native of Cuzco and a future hero 
of the independence, who defeated the Indians at the 
Apacheta de Collimani, where Santiago Prado, one of 
the leaders in the army of Pumacagua, was killed. Gon- 
zalez killed one hundred and twenty persons in cold 
blood, including Miguel Pascual San Roman, the father 
of the future president, who was shot at Puno. "They 
fell into my hands, and I shot them," is the statement 
in the cold-blooded report of this miscreant, dated 
May 20th, 1816. 

In 1814 Spanish power began to be threatened by 
sea as well as by land. On the i6th of May of that 
year a British seaman in command of some vessels fitted 
out by the Argentine insurgents, defeated a Spanish 
squadron off Montevideo. This was Captain William 
Brown, who was so encouraged by this first success, 
that he came around the Horn with four armed vessels 
under the Argentine flag. On January 20th, 1816, he 
was off Callao bay and captured several prizes, includ- 
ing two Spanish frigates, before his presence on the 
coast was known. The viceroy Abascal worked hard 



234 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

to complete the armaments of five frigates and a brig- 
antine, which sailed in pursuit of Brown's squadron 
on the 15th of February. Meanwhile Brown proceeded 
to Guayaquil and silenced a battery, but he was taken 
prisoner in a boat action. His brother anchored off the 
town, and threatened to set it on fire unless the prisoner 
was released. This demand was conceded, and Brown's 
squadron retired to the Galapagos Islands, where a par- 
tition of the booty took place, before returning to the 
river Plate. 

v/ During these operations by land and sea, liberal opin- 
ion continued to ferment in the capital. After the 
banishment of Riva Aguero, another young advocate 
became the leader of opposition to Spanish rule. Fran- 
cisco de Paula Quiros was born at Arequipa in 1782, 
and graduated at the university of Guamanga in 1803. 
In the same year he came to Lima as an advocate. 
Shrewd, audacious, and restless, he was imbued with 
ideas of liberty, and his house became the focus of all 
revolutionary plans. In 1813 he was seized and impris- 
oned in the casemates of Callao Castle, but the influ- 
ence of his relations procured his release. When the 
insurrection of Pumacagua broke out at Cuzco, Quiros 
at once began to conspire at Lima, bringing into re- 
quisition his friends, his money ,his talent, and his au- 
dacity. Seeing that Lima had been denuded of troops, 
owing to the disturbances in the interior, he judged 
that the moment had arrived for action. There was 
only a militia regiment commanded by the Count of 
La Vega, who had himself opened his house to the 
enthusiasts for independence, and was favorable to the 
patriot cause. In the prison of the inquisition there 
had been a young patriot officer who had been taken 
prisoner at the battle of Ayohuma. In 1813 he was 



EVE OE THE REVOLUTION 235 

removed to the casemates of Callao Castle. This was 
Pardo de Zela, the orphan son of a naval officer at Fer- 
rol, who had been sent out to Buenos Ayres when 
onl}^ fifteen years old. He distinguished himself in the 
resistance of the people against General Beresford in 
1806, and obtained a cadetship. Joining the patriot 
cause he served in the campaign under Belgrano and 
was now a prisoner. Quiros selected young Pardo de 
Zela as a colleague with whom to concert his revo- 
lutionary plans, and he gained access to the prisoner 
on pretence of being his legal adviser. Quiros had 
many warm sympathizers among the militia officers, 
and two of his most ardent supporters were the broth- 
ers Manuel and Tomas Menendez. Manuel owned the 
large sugar estate of Bocanegra, near the mouth of the 
Rimac, and was eventually acting-president of Peru. 
Among the ladies who took an active part in the move- 
ment were the Countess of Gisla and Dona Pepita Fer- 
reyros. 

A batallion of veterans of the peninsula war was ex- 
pected to arrive, and the advice of Pardo de Zela was 
to raise a popular insurrection before their arrival, lib- 
erating six hundred prisoners, and gaining over the 
militia. But there was vacillation and delay, until it 
was suddenly announced that the Talavera regiment 
had arrived at Callao. The plot had been betrayed. 
The militia regiment was disbanded. The Count of 
La Vega, whose only discovered crime was his popu- 
larity, was thrown into prison, while Pardo de Zela 
and the other political captives were more closely 
guarded than ever. Quiros was accidentally killed, 
while fencing with a Frenchman. He had worked to 
the last for the patriot cause, and his last words were — 
"My fate is like that of the chief of Israel. I die within 



236 A HISTORY OF PERU 

sight of the promised land." Reaction triumphed 
for a few more years, and the casemates of Callao Cas- 
tle were filled with political prisoners loaded with 
chains. 

Don Jose Abascal had been surrounded by difficult- 
ies. He had shown great activit}^ and resource, and 
at the end of his term of office he saw his policy suc- 
ceeding in all directions. Chile and upper Peru were 
reconquered. Resistance was stamped out in New Gre- 
nada. Buenos Ayres alone remained free. He thought 
that Spanish power was restored ; while he was merely 
sitting on the safety valve. It was onl}'' a lull before 
the final storm. Abascal had married his only daughter 
Ramona to General Peveyra in 1815, and he prepared 
to return home alone. He was created Marquis de la 
Concordia. In July, 1816, he was relieved of the vice- 
royalty by General Pezuela and returned to Spain, 
where he held the rank of captain-general. He died 
at Madrid, at the age of seventy-eight, in 1821. 

General Don Joaquim de la Pezuela entered Lima, 
as viceroy of Peru, on July 7th, 1816. He was relieved 
in the command of the army in upper Peru by General 
Don Jose de la Serna, who arrived at Arica in the Ven- 
ganza irigate in 1816. General Ramirez was appointed 
president of Quito. 




Jose de San Martin. 



CHAPTER X 

THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE UNDER SAN MARTIN. 

General Don Joachim de la Pezuela was the last le- 
gimate viceroy of Peru. Including the governors he 
was the forty-fourth from Pizarro. There were full 
length portraits of all the viceroys in the hall of the 
palace at Lima, and that of Pezuela just completed 
them, filling the last vacant place. After the inde- 
pendence these portraits were removed to the national 
museum. In 1817 Pezuela reported the condition 
of Peru. He was standing over a volcano. The whole 
country was ready to rise. He declared that the aver- 
sion of the Indians to the king's authority, and their 
love for the memory of the Incas, were indelible, and 
as strong as during the first days of the conquest. 
Hence they were always ready to listen to those who 
suggested insurrectionar}' movement. The cholos or 
mestizos, as the half castes were called, of whom the 
militia regiments were mainly composed, were said to 
be not quite so disaffected as the Indians, but still they 
were only too ready to make common cause with the 
malcontents. The viceroy could entertain no hope of 
support. He was conscious of the imminence of the 
danger, but he was not able to forsee from what direc- 
tion the blow would come. A scientific officer of great 



238 A HISTORY OF PERU 

experience, Pezuela had none of the qualities which 
would fit him to face the gathering storm. 

Buenos Ayres was the place where preparations could 
best be made to free Chile and Peru, but a guiding 
hand was required, of no common skill and resolution. 
Such a hand was providentially ready to grasp the sit- 
uation when most needed. Jose de San Martin was 
a son of the governor of Paraguay, and was born at 
Yapeya in the "Misiones" on the 25th of February, 
1778. At the age of eight he went to Spain with his 
family, and was admitted a student of the college of 
nobles at Madrid. After entering the Spanish army, 
he so distinguished himself at the battle of Baylen 
that he obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. When 
he heard of the struggle for liberty in his native land, 
he resolved to cast in his lot with it. He proceeded 
to England, where he enjoyed the friendship of the 
Earl of Fife, and, sailing from the Thames in the ship 
"George Canning," he landed safely at Buenos Ayres. 
Soon after his arrival he married Dona Remedies Es- 
calada, by whom he had an onl}^ daughter named Mer- 
cedes. 

San Martin was at once appointed to an important 
command by the Argentine government. He intro- 
duced a regular and scientific system into the organiza- 
tion of the insurgent forces. In 1814 he began the la- 
bor of creating an army of the Andes at Mendoza, the 
nucleus of which was one hundred and eighty recruits 
from Buenos A3^res. He had conceived the plan of 
crossing the snow}^ cordillera of the Andes, and driv- 
ing the Spaniards out of Chile. But it was a work 
of two years to increase his little nucleus to an army 
fit for the invasion of Chile. All that time San Martin 
devoted himself to the task with sound judgment, abil- 



THE WAR. OF INDEPENDENCE 239 

ity, and industry. He secured the full confidence of 
officers and men. Bernardo O'Higgins, a natural son 
of the viceroy, Marquis of Osorno, was a fugitive from 
Chile. He joined San Martin at Mendoza, and received 
command of a brigade. At length, on January 17th, 
1817, General San Martin began his march over the 
Andes. The force consisted of two hundred and sixty 
regimental officers with five hundred and seventy mules 
to carry their baggage. The foot soldiers numbered 
2,800, one mule being allowed to each man, and one 
extra to every five men. The cavalry numbered nine 
hundred, with 1,400 mules. The staff consisted of 
seventy-one officers for whom one hundred and seven- 
teen mules were allowed. There were 1,200 militia 
in charge of the mules, and one hundred and twenty 
workmen with tools. Provisions were carried for 
5,200 men for fifteen days on five hundred and ten 
mules, a cable bridge and grapnels on sixty-five mules ; 
a field train of artillery with one hundred and tert 
rounds per gun, 500,000 musket cartridges, and one 
hundred and eighty loads of spare arms on seven hun- 
dred and seventy mules. Altogether there were 1,600 
horses and 9,281 mules. The provisions consisted of 
jerked beef seasoned with capsicum, toasted maize, 
biscuit and cheese. The three divisions were under 
Generals Las Heras, Alvarado, and Conde. 

Only 4,300 mules and five hundred horses ever ar- 
rived in Chile. When the road was comparatively 
good each piece of ordnance was carried on a bar be- 
tween two mules, while in bad places it was dragged 
up by ropes. All the men suffered from the rarefac- 
tion of the air caused by the great elevation. This 
brings on a disease called sorochi in South America, 
and many of the men even died of it. San Martin had 



240 A HISTORY OF PERU 

supplied onions as a remed}^ The summit of the 
Uspallata Pass is 12,500 feet above the sea, upward of 
4,000 feet higher than the pass of the great St. Ber- 
nard. This remarkable march, planned and achieved 
by San Martin, is certainly a greater feat than that of 
Napoleon in crossing the Alps, and equal to anything 
of the kind recorded in military annals. It brought 
deliverance first to Chile, and then to Peru. 

In February, 1817, the vanguard of San Martin's arm}^, 
under Colonel Necochea, drove back a small Spanish 
force, and the patriots debouched from the mountains, 
entering Santiago on the 14th. The Chileans elected 
San Martin to be the head of their government, but 
he declined the office, which was then conferred upon 
O'Higgins. The battle of Maypu, on April 5th, 1818, 
completed the destruction of Spanish power in Chile. 
San Martin then concentrated his whole attention on 
the capture of Lima and the liberation of Peru. He 
made two journeys across the Andes to Buenos Ayres 
and back, to obtain sanction for his project, and the 
means of bringing it to a successful termination. The 
first and foremost necessity was the collection of a 
fleet of ships at Valparaiso, for the conveyance of his 
army. 

The command of the sea is the one thing needful, 
from a military point of view, for the invasion or de- 
fence of the land of the Incas. This command the 
Spaniards were about to lose. San Martin urged the 
Chileans to assist his enterprise by buying'' ships ; for 
there could be no security for the independence he 
had won for them, while a Spanish viceroy had his 
headquarters at Lima. Two old East Indiamen were 
bought for ^340,000, their names were changed to 
the "San Martin" and "Lautaro, " and they received 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 241 

armaments of fifty-six and forty-four guns respectively. 
Captain Martin Guise, an English naval officer, brought 
out an old British corvette, which was also purchased 
and re-named the "Galvarino, " of eighteen guns, with 
Guise as her captain. Three brigs, called the "Cha- 
cabuco, " "Araucano, " and "Puyrredon" were added: 
the whole cost of this little squadron being ^475,000. 
It put to sea on October gth, 1818, and captured the 
Spanish frigate "Maria Isabel" at Concepcion. She 
was an important addition to the liberating fleet, and 
received the name of "O'Higgins," fifty guns. 

Lord Cochrane, an English naval officer cf distin- 
guished services, great ability, and remarkable inven- 
tive talent, had accepted an ofier of the Chilean gov- 
ernment to command the squadron. He arrived at 
Valparaiso, and hoisted his flag on board the "OHig- 
gins" on the 22nd of December, 1818. The ships 
were all commanded by English officers, except Cap- 
tain Worster, Guise's successor in the "Lautaro, " 
who was an American. Under Lord Cochrane in the 
"O'Higgins" were Captain Forster, and Major Miller 
in command of the marines. The "San Martin" was 
commanded by Captain Wilkinson, the "Lautaro" by 
Captain Guise, and afterward by Captain Worster, 
"Chacabuco" by Captain Carter, the "Galvarino" by 
Captain Spr^^ "Araucano" by Captain Ramsay, then 
by Captain Crosbie, and finally by Captain Simpson, 
and "Puyrredon" by Captain Prunnier. The squadron 
sailed from Valparaiso, and was off Callao early in 
February, i8ig. 

The Spanish fleet at Callao consisted of three fri- 
gates, the "Esmeralda "of forty-four guns, commanded 
by Don Luis Coig, the "Venganza" (42) and "Sebas- 
tiana" (28). There were also three brigs, the "Pezu- 



242 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ela, " "Ma3^pu," and "Potrilla, " and six armed mer- 
chantmen. The "Prueba" frigate of fifty guns, com- 
manded by Captain Villegas, was at Guayaquil, 

The Spanish ships were moored under the guns of 
Callao castle, and Lord Cochrane's scheme for cutting 
them out was frustrated by a dense fog. The squadron 
engaged the forts on shore, and Captain Guise of the 
"Lautaro" was severely wounded. Captain Forster 
then took possession of the island of San Lorenzo, and 
Major Miller landed and formed a laboratory with a 
view to preparing fire ships, but on the 19th there was 
an accidental explosion b}^ which he was very severely 
injured. Several young Peruvian patriots succeeded in 
joining the liberating squadron, among whom was a 
lad of sixteen named Vidal, who continued to serve 
as a volunteer. The squadron returned to Valparaiso, 
from what was looked upon as its trial trip, on June 
17th, 1819. 

In September Lord Cochrane again sailed for Callao, 
taking four hundred soldiers under Major Miller, to 
act as marines. It was intended to make an attack 
with fire ships and rafts with rockets. The latter were 
failures and the fire ships exploded prematurely. Two 
brigs under Guise were sent to Pisco to obtain sup- 
plies, a service which was successfully performed, 
but not without a sharp brush with seven hundred 
and fifty of the enemy. Captain Charles was killed, 
and Major Miller was hit in three places. One ball 
struck him on the right arm, a second permanently 
disabled his left hand, and a third hit him on the 
chest and broke a rib. It was the fate of this gallant 
officer never to go into action without being hit. 
Lord Cochrane, with the rest of the squadron, pro- 
ceeded to the north of Callao, and hove to off Santa. 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 243 

On November i6th, Ensign Vidal was landed with a 
small party. He captured the town after defeating 
three times his own number of Spaniards. The squad- 
ron returned to Valparaiso from its second cruise, in 
December, i8ig. 

General San Martin was nearly ready to embark. 
He had been indefatigable in overcoming obstacles, 
and pushing forward the preparations, and in January, 
1820, he returned from a second visit to Buenos Ayres. 
He received much aid, in advances of money and stores, 
from foreign merchants, and by August, 1820, there was 
a force of 4,500 men assembled at Valparaiso, ready to 
embark. There were five infantry battalions, and two 
regiments of cavalry. Two of the battalions were com- 
posed entirely ot Argentines. The other three were 
officered entirely by Argentines, and the men were two- 
thirds Argentines, and one third Chileans. Of this 
force not more than ten officers and ninety men con- 
tinued in active service in Peru until the end of the 
war. Miller was the only field officer who sailed from 
Valparaiso and remained to see the war out. 

The viceroy had been for two years in a state of the 
deepest anxiety. He was surrounded by perplexities, 
caused alike by the disasters to his arms in Chile, and 
by the seething mass of intrigue and discontent in 
Lima. 

In July, 1818, a plot was discovered among the pris- 
oners, aided by friends outside, to get possession of 
Callao Castle. Three of the ringleaders, including 
Colonel Gomez of Tacna, were executed, amidst the 
deep sympathy of the spectators, two months before 
the first appearance of Lord Cochrane's squadron. 
Riva Aguero, with that activity and energy which be- 
longed to his character, continued to foment the desire 



244 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

for liberty among the upper classes, as soon ,as he was 
released and allowed to return to .Lima. He was aided 
by the young and accomplished professor of mathe- 
matics, Don Eduardo Carrasco, who was at the head 
of the nautical school, and had many attached disciples. 
V) Carrasco conducted a correspondence with the emis- 
saries of San Martin, and supplied that general with 
plans and topographical details. Francisco Xavier 
Mariategui, a cleveryoung lawyer, executed several del- 
icate and often dangerous commissions which required 
youth and audacity. The students of San Carlos were 
so thoroughly imbued with patriotic aspirations that 
the vicero}^ Pezuela closed the college for three months, 
and when it was re-opened onl}^ a few selected students 
were admitted, "ander a reactionary rector. 

At this time two emissaries from San Martin, named 
Paredes and Garcia, were secretly landed at Ancon 
with a box of proclamations and correspondence, and 
went on to Lima on foot. An interview with Riva 
Aguero was arranged in the house of the mother of 
Paredes, the letters were distributed, and the procla- 
mations were posted up and scattered in all directions. 
Paredes then traveled along the coast to Truxillo, dis- 
tributing letters and proclamations. But the w^hole 
plan was betra3^ed to the government. On the 26th 
of May, 1820, a number of patriots were marched off to 
prison, including Riva Aguero, Carrasco, and Pezet. 
They were locked up in the cells of the suppressed 
inquisition, and Carrasco was put in irons. After 
three months they were released, owing to want of evi- 
dence. The barefooted Franciscan Montenegro saved 
the patriots from a catastrophe on this occasion, by 
burning in his cell the correspondence of San Martin 
with numerous natives of Lima. Pezuela had other 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 245 

things to think of. He had an army of 23,000 men to 
resist invasion, 7,815 in Lima and Callao, 8,485 quar- 
tered at Cuzco, Arequipa and Xauxa, 6,000 in upper 
Peru, and seven hundred at Pisco and Cafiete on ihe 
coast. 

On August 2ist, 1820, San Martin's expedition 
sailed from Valparaiso, the fleet being under the com- 
mand of Lord Cochrane. On September 7th the ships 
anchored in Paraccas Bay, six miles south of Pisco. 
Colonel Las Heras the chief of the staff, landed on the 
8th, and the general with the rest of the force disem- 
barked on the I2th. Colonel Alvarado, in command of 
the cavalry, occupied the valley of Chincha. San Mar- 
tin then organized an expedition to penetrate into the 
interior, led by General Arenales, an officer aged sixty- 
five, who had grown gra}^ in the service of the patriots 
in upper Peru. He left Pisco with two battalions of 
infantry, eighty horse and two field-pieces on the 5th 
of October, entered Yea the next day and chased the 
Spaniards as far as Acari, where a troop of mules laden 
with military stores was captured, and then began the 
ascent of the Andes. 

General San Martin, owing to intelligence he had 
received, determined to take up a position to the north 
of Lima. The army was re-embarked at Pisco on the 
26th of October, and landed again at Huacho seventy 
miles north of the capital. Headquarters were es- 
tablished at the inland town of Huaura on the 9th of 
November, 1820. Young Vidal had been promoted to 
the rank of captain by General San Martin, as soon as 
he landed. He showed wonderful enterprise in com- 
mand of a body of light cavalry, scouring the country 
between Huaura and Lima, surprising royalist detach- 



^46 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ments, creating important diversions, and keeping up 
communications with friends in the capital. 

Having disembarked the arm}', Lord Cochrane had 
formed the design of cutting out the Spanish frigate 
"Esmeralda" from under the guns of Callao Castle. At 
II p.^i. on the night of November 5th, 1820, his Lord- 
ship led the boats in two divisions respectively under 
Captains Guise and Crosbie, with one hundred and 
eight}' seamen and one hundred marines. They ap- 
proached and ran alongside the "Esmeralda" unper- 
ceived, boarding on both sides at the same time. There 
was much rivalry between Cochrane and Guise, who 
boarded at the same moment on opposite sides, and 
met on the quarter deck. Cochrane thought he was on 
board first, and muttered, "Where are you now. Guise?" 
"Here, m}' Lord!" was the prompt repl}- close beside 
him. They supported each other in the thick of the fight, 
the Spaniards making a spirited resistance with small 
arms. Before i a. ini. the "Esmeralda" was taken. Her 
cables were cut, sails set, and she was transferred to 
an anchorage less under the range of the castle. The 
Spaniards lost one hundred and fifty, the patriots fifty 
killed and wounded. On the 8th of November the 
prize was brought to Ancon, and re-named the "Val- 
divia, " Captain Guise receiving the command. 

With the consent of General San Martin a small ex- 
pedition under the command of Major Miller was then 
sent to the south on board the "San Martin" to create 
a diversion. Miller was put on shore, with his marines, 
at the Morro de Sama, and advanced boldly to the cit3' 
of Tacna, where he received an enthusiastic welcome 
from the clergy and people. Two detachments were sent 
against him, one from Arequipa and the other from 
Puno by way of Torata. Miller had three hundred 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 247 

and ten marines and seventy horse marines. He 
marched across a sandy desert and reached Mirabe, 
where the royalists were posted, on the 20th of May, 
1821. There was a rapid stream to cross and Miller 
got his men over it during the night, mounting a ma- 
rine behind every horse-marine. At dawn the fight 
began, and the Spaniards were defeated with heavy 
loss. On the 22nd Miller chased them to Locumba, 
where he was joined by two enthusiastic lads of seven- 
teen from the college of Arequipa. Having defeated 
another Spanish detachment at Torata and visited 
Moquegua, Miller returned to Tacna, and embarked 
at Arica on the 22nd of July. Proceeding to Pisco, 
he landed there and took possession of the town on the 
2nd of August, 1821. 

The position of headquarters, where San Martin 
remained for some months, was wisely chosen, being 
conveniently near the capital. On the 3rd of Decem- 
ber, 1820, the whole Spanish battalion of Numancia, 
six hundred and fifty strong and chiefly consisting of 
Colombians, came over to the patriots. On the 8th as 
many as thirty-eight Peruvian officers and several 
cadets arrived from Lima, including the gallant young 
Salaverry, a boy of fourteen years. San Martin's line 
extended from the sea near Huacho, along the right 
bank of the Huaura river to Sayan, a distance of 
about twenty miles The Spanish army, under the 
viceroy Pezuela, was posted at Asnapuquio, about six 
miles north of Lima. 

Meanwhile General Arenales had marched from Yea 
across the cordillera to Guamanga and thence to Tarma, 
where he heard that the royalist General O'Reilly was 
at Cerro Pasco. He, therefore, pressed onward, de- 
feated the Spaniards on December 6th and took 



248 A HISTORY OF PERU 

O'Reilly prisoner. Colonel Andres Santa Cruz, a 
native of La Paz of noble Indian lineage, also surrend- 
ered to Arenales and joined the patriot cause. He 
was a man who was destined to play an important part 
in the future history of the country. Arenales returned 
to the coast, and made a second march to Cerro Pasco 
in May, 1821, but his movements led to no permanent 
military result. Indeed they were mischievous, for 
the poor Indians rose at his call and made a gallant 
stand at Huancayo, but they were unsupported, and 
were mercilessly slaughtered by the royalist General 
Ricaforte. 

An important event took place in the Spanish camp 
at Asnapuquio in January, 1821. San Martin had ad- 
vanced his camp to Retes, a league north-east of Chan- 
cay ; but he was resolved to avoid a battle. The vice- 
roy was at a loss what course to take, and the generals 
of the army were irritated and discontented, because 
they feared that negotiations might be opened with 
results prejudicial to their interests. On the 29th of 
January an insubordinate letter was addressed to the 
vicero}^, calling upon him to resign, and to deliver over 
his command to General Don Jose de la Serna. The 
letter was signed by GeneralsCanterac, Valdez, Rodil, 
Carratala, . Bedoya, Tur, Narvaez, Garcia Camba, and 
ten others. It was in fact a deposition and, as the 
mutineers were leading the army, Pezuela had no al- 
ternative. He abdicated after an unquiet and anxious 
term of four years and a half. He went to live in the 
village of Magdalena near Lima, until he could find an 
opportunity of embarking for Europe. His wife, Dona 
Angela Cevallos de Pezuela, and children, were taken 
on board H. B. M. S. "Andromache," but Captain 
Sheriff said that the laws of neutrality prevented him 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 249 

from receiving the ex-viceroy. At length the last legal 
representative of the king of Spain in Peru went across 
Callao Bay in a small fishing-boat, in the night of the 
2gth of June, and got on board the schooner "Wash- 
ington," with three friends. He was taken, by way 
of Rio, to Falmouth, and thence made his way to 
Spain, where he published a detailed vindication of 
his conduct. He was created Marquis of Viluma, and 
in 1825 he was appointed Captain-General of Castilla 
la Nueva. He died at Madrid in 1830, at the age of 
sixty-nine, after a military service extending over fifty- 
five years. 

Immediately after the deposition of the viceroy, a 
hundred officers and civilians arrived at the camp of 
San Martin, from Lima. The most important was 
Colonel Gamarra, a native of Cuzco, and the future 
president of Peru, and Colonel Elespuru his devoted 
friend. San Martin now raised the first battalion of 
Peruvians. The Spanish generals declared Don Jose 
de la Serna to be viceroy of Peru. This was an irreg- 
ular and lawless proceeding, but it was eventuall}/ rec- 
ognized from home. The Spanish government sent 
out a naval captain named Don Manuel Abreu, to 
ascertain the demands of the patriots and arrange a 
compromise. He was well received both by San Mar- 
tin and La Serna, and an armistice of twenty days 
was established. San Martin proposed as a basis for 
peace that the independence of the country should be 
recognized, that there should be a provisional consti- 
tution until the election of a congress, and that a Bour- 
bon prince should ascend the throne of Peru. The 
new viceroy gave his personal assent to these pro- 
posals, but the other royalist generals insisted upon 
their rejection. The negotiations came to an end in May. 



250 A HISTORY OF PERU 

The royalists now resolved to evacuate the coast, be- 
in-g without ships and cut ofl from all means of com- 
munication. General Canterac marched into the inte- 
rior in June. On July 6th the vicero}^, La Serna, after 
having garrisoned and provisioned Callao Castle, and 
left it in command of Sub-Inspector Lamar, evacuated 
Lima. He marched by way of Yau3i'os, to Xauxa, 
where he formed a junction with Generals Canterac and 
Carratala, at the head of 3,000 men. 

In the night of the gth of July, 1821, General San 
Martin entered the capital of Peru. 

V The Independence of Peru was proclaimed at Lima 
on the 28th of July, 1821. On the 3rd of August Gen 
eral San Martin was declared protector of Peru. He 
appointed Don Juan Garcia del Rio his minister of 
foreign affairs, Don Bernardo Monteagudo of war and 
marine, and Don Hipolito Unanue of finance. On the 
28th a decree abolished the mitta or forced labor of 
Indians. The establishment of a national library was 
also decreed. In October the order of the Sun was 
instituted and titles of nobilit}^ with their entails, 
were retained. In the following 3'ear a loan of ;^i,200,- 
000 with six per cent interest, was raised in England, 
through the minister Garcia del Rio. There was the 
utmost enthusiasm among the native population ; but 
the Spaniards, of whom there were a great number in 
the capital, had nothing to expect but deprivation and 
severity. 

The protector San Martin sent the specie found in 
the Lima treasury to Ancon for safety, in his yacht 
the "Sacramento." Lord Cochrane had long been mak- 
ing bitter complaints that the men of the Chilean 
squadron were unpaid and consequently discontented. 
He proceeded to Ancon and forcibly seized the treasure, 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 251 

on the pretext of paying his men. He alleged that he 
took ^285,000 for this purpose. After an investigation 
the protector declared that $400,000 were missing. He, 
therefore, ordered Cochrane and the Chilean squadron 
to depart from Peruvian waters. Out of thirty English 
officers, fifteen, including Captain Guise, disapproved 
of the conduct of Lord Cochrane. The}' went on 
shore, and Guise was appointed commodore of the 
Peruvian navy, which was intended to be formed. A 
commencement was made soon afterward when the 
Spanish frigate "Prueba" came into Callao and surren- 
dered. She received the name of "Protector." 

Lord Cochrane took his squadron, with the fourteen 
English officers who sided with him, to Gua3^aquil. 
He then cruised off the coast of Mexico for Spanish 
frigates, and returned to Valparaiso on the 13th of June, 
1822, after an absence of a year and nine months. He 
finally left the Chilean service and departed, on the 
i8th of January, 1823. Thus ended the proceeding's 
of the Chilean squadron, which soon afterward ceased 
to exist. The "San Martin" had been wrecked off Chor- 
rillos in July ,1821. The "O'Higgins" was sold to 
Buenos Ayres in 1826, and was lost off the Horn. 
The "Lautaro" became a store hulk at Valparaiso. The 
"Valdivia" ("Esmeralda") was wrecked in the bay of 
Valparaiso. The "Independencia" and "Chacabuco" 
were sold to Buenos Ayres in 1826. The "Galvarino" 
sank at her moorings in Valparaiso bay. The "Puyrre- 
don" was wrecked off Ancon in 1821. The "Araucano" 
was burned by mutineers in 1822. Some of the English 
officers settled in Chile. Robert Simpson, who had 
commanded the "Araucano," was for many years com- 
modore of the Chilean navy. Lord Cochrane and the 
Chilean government disputed over questions of ac- 



252 A HISTORY OF PERU 

count and arrears of pay for man}^ lonp^ 5'ears after- 
ward. 

Miller received the rank of colonel, after the action at 
Mirabe. This distinguished officer was born at Wing- 
ham in Kent, England, and served in the field train de- 
partment of the royal artillery throughout the penin 
sular war, under Wellington. In 1817 he sailed for 
South America and was appointed a captain of artil- 
lery by the Argentine government. Passing on into 
Chile, he was captain of marines under Cochrane, and 
entered the Peruvian service under San Martin. When 
he landed at Pisco in August, 1821, he found a Spanish 
garrison of two hundred men commanded b)^ Colonel 
Santalla who retreated to Yea. Miller followed close 
on his heels, and cut off the enemy's retreat along the 
coast, so he retired into the mountains where the 
Morochuco Indians, who were ardent republicans, rose 
against him en masse, obliging him to disband his 
troops. Santalla was a tall man of great strength and 
was double jointed so that he could tear a pack of 
cards in two with the fingers and thumb of one hand. 
Colonel Miller now assumed the government of an 
extensive country with Yea as its centre. But hear- 
ing that Canterac was threatening Lima, Colonel Mil- 
ler marched northward in the direction of the capital. 
Lurin is the first valley south of that of the Rimac, 
a desert intervening and as Miller emerged from the 
bright green fields on to the arid waste he saw the 
Spanish columns in full march before him. He was 
too weak to attack them, but reached Lima, to re-inforce 
San Martin on the 12th of September. 

Jose Canterac was the most enterprising of the Span- 
ish generals. He was a Frenchman of a royalist fam- 
ily, who took service in the Spanish arm}^ to continue 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 253 

to serve another branch of those Bourbons who had 
been driven out of France. He had been in South 
America since 1815, serving first under General Mo- 
rillo in New Granada, and from 1818 with La Serna 
in upper Peru. He was the ringleader in the mutiny 
against the viceroy Pezuela, and the main support of 
La Serna. But his march to the coast in September, 
1821, showed more dash than judgment. When he 
entered the valle}^ of the Rimac, San Martin drew up 
his army outside Lima and preserved a watchful atti- 
tude : holding that it would be an advantage if, by an 
increase of the mouths to be fed, the surrender of 
Callao Castle was hastened. Canterac, therefore, was 
allowed to march unmolested to the castle and every- 
thing fell out as the protector expected. Canterac's 
arrival only augmented the difficulties of the garrison. 
He, therefore, returned to the Sierra by the road of 
Carabayllo and Canta, followed for a short distance by 
a small force under Colonel Miller. 

On the 2ist of September, 1821, Callao Castle surren- 
dered to the protector, and its governor General Lamar, 
a native of Cuenca in the province of Quito, and an 
officer who had seen much service in Spain, came over 
to the patriot ranks. At this time a Peruvian legion 
was organized, with the Marquis of Torre Tagle, a 
nobleman of Lima, as its general. A regiment of in- 
fantry was rendered efficient with Miller as its colonel, 
who gave the men a blue uniform with red facings, the 
cavalry was entrusted to a French officer named Brand- 
sen who had served on the staff of Eugene Beauhar- 
nais, and the artillery was commanded by Arenales, 
an Argentine officer. After the surrender of the castle, 
a field officer of high rank who had joined the patriots, 
named Domingo Tristan, was sent to assume command 



254 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

at Yea and the neighboring coast valleys. The inde- 
fatigable Canterac determined to attack him. Leaving 
Xauxa with 1,500 foot and six hundred horse he crossed 
the Cordillera and reached the vicinity of Yea on the 6th 
of April. Tristan was ignorant of the position of his 
enemy, and was marching past a place called Macacona 
near Yea, when he was suddenly attacked on the flank. 
His troops dispersed immediatel}^, and he lost all his 
arms and ammunition. But this was merely a tran- 
sient success, for Canterac was obliged to return to 
his base of operations in the Sierra. The victory of 
of Pichincha, near Quito, on the 24th of May, 1822, 
was a counterbalancing event. General Ramirez had 
been in command at Quito, with the title of president 
of the Audience, since 1816. When General Bolivar 
had liberated Venezuela and New Granada from the 
Spanish yoke, he turned his attention to Ramirez, and 
invaded Quito. A Peruvian auxiliary division had 
been sent from Truxillo under Colonel Santa Cruz. At 
the battle of Pichincha it was these Peruvians who bore 
the brunt of the action, but the fate of the day was de- 
cided by a brilliant charge of Colombians under Colonel 
Cordova. General Ramirez capitulated, and the inde 
pendence of Quito was secured. General Bolivar then 
came to the port of Gua3^aquil flushed with victory, 
and full of ambition to add to the lustre of his name by 
the liberation of Peru. General San Martin was a 
pure patriot, with little personal ambition. He saw 
clearly that there could be no room for himself and 
Bolivar in the same sphere of action, and that it was 
necessary for the welfare of the common cause that 
one of them should retire. He did not hesitate to 
make the sacrifice. An interview was arranged at Guay- 
aquil between the two generals. It took place on the 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 255 

26th of Jul}^ 1822, the protector having delegated his 
powers in Peru during his absence, to the Marquis of 
Torre Tagle. The particulars of this interview have 
never been fully divulged. 

During the stay of San Martin at Guayaquil, the 
minister Monteagudo exceeded his powers and treated 
the Spaniards in Lima with great cruelty. He carried 
his extortions and tyrannical imprisonments to such a 
height that he was universally hated. A half-caste of 
Chuquisaca in upper Peru, he was as unscrupulous 
and insolent as he was undoubtedly clever. In the 
protector's absence the people rose and demanded his 
dismissal. Torre Tagle yielded, and the unpopular 
minister was sent to Callao under arrest, whence he 
retired to Quito. Returning to Peru under the pat- 
ronage of Bolivar, he was assassinated at Lima in 
1824, by one of the victims of his tyranny. 

The protector San Martin returned from Guayaquil 
on the 2ist of August. In his absence deputies had 
been elected to form a congress, which was installed 
b}^ the protector with due formality on the 20th of 
September, 1822. He resigned all authority into the 
hands of the representatives of the people, and with- 
drew to his country house at the little village of Mag- 
dalena. He then issued a farewell address. "The 
presence of a fortunate soldier," he said, "is dangerous 
to newly constituted states. Peruvians! I leave 3^our 
national representation established. If you repose 
confidence in it, you will triumph; if not, anarchy will 
overtake you. May success preside over your desti- 
nies, and may they be crowned with felicity and peace. " 

The career of San Martin had been honorable and 
magnanimous. He was an intrepid soldier, an enter- 
prising general, and a disinterested patriot. He had 



256 A HISTORY OF PERU 

achieved great ends through his genius for organiza- 
tion, his untiring zeal, and his enthusiasm. He was the 
liberator both of Chile and of Peru. He did not tarn- 
ish his career by self-seeking or by personal ambition. 
He sacrificed his own future, willingly and spontane- 
ously for the good of the cause he loved. San Martin 
sailed for Valparaiso, but made no long stay in Chile. 
His wife died at Mendoza just before he reached that 
place, on his way to Buenos Ayres. In 1823, he sailed 
for England, where he remained for some time, also 
visiting the Earl of Fife in Scotland. He then went 
to Brussels to complete the education of his oni}^ 
daughter Mercedes. In November, 1828, he again vis- 
ited England, and sailed thence to Buenos A3^res, but 
returned almost immediately. His daughter was mar- 
ried in 1832 to Don Manuel Balcarcef, and the general 
took a small cottage at Grand Bourg where he resided 
for the rest of his life. He died at Boulogne aged 
seventy-two, on the 17th of August, 1850. After many 
years his remains were removed to South America and 
deposited in the cathedral at Buenos Ayres with mag- 
nificent funeral rites, on the 28th of Ma}^ 1880. An 
equestrian statue had previously been inaugurated in 
the centre of the square which is named in his honor. 



CHAPTER XI 

RIVA AGUERO, FIRST PRESIDENT OF PERU AND THE FIRST 
CONGRESS. CAREER OF BOLIVAR 

The first constituent congress of Peru became the 
sovereign power of the state on the departure of San 
Martin, and for nearly a year that body conducted the 
affairs of the country, and directed the operations of 
war. Dr. Francisco Xavier Luna Pizarro was elected 
president of the congress, and Dr. Mariategui was 
secretary. Born at Arequipa in 1780, Luna Pizarro 
was a student at San Geronimo from 1791 to 1798, and 
it will be remembered that he was one of the favorite 
pupils of the good bishop Chavez de la Rosa. He 
became a licentiate in 1798, took orders in 1799, and 
went to Spain in 1809 with the bishop. He filled the 
post of chaplain to the council of the Indies for a short 
time, and on his return to Peru in 1814 he became a 
canon of Lima. Dr. Luna Pizarro was an ardent pa- 
triot and was in favor of establishing the independence 
without foreign aid. 

The congress appointed an executive committee, 
called a "Junta Gubernativa, " consisting of the Count 
of Vista Florida, a nobleman of Lima and son of that 

accomplished count whose great popularity caused so 

17 257 



258 A HISTORY OF PERU 

much anxiety to the viceroy Abascal ; General Lamar 
who had been the royal governor of Callao Castle, but 
who had now come over to the patriots ; and General 
Alvarado, one of the Argentine officers of San Martin. 
Don Jose de la Riva Aguero had become a colonel and 
was made president of the department, while General 
Arenales commanded the Lima garrison. On the 25th 
of September all the troops took the oath of fidelity to 
the congress. Through the exertions of Colonels Miller 
and Videla, the men were well clothed and equipped. 
They were popular and well conducted, while the offi- 
cers were cordially received in Lima society. A ball 
was given to them in October, the company being re- 
ceived by Dona Rosa de Panizo, who had been the 
pride of the viceregal court of Abascal. 

The congress resolved to send an expedition to the 
southern provinces of Peru under the command of 
General Rudesindo Alvarado, an Argentine officer, with 
Colonel Pinto as chief of the staff. The force con- 
sisted of 3.860 men, seven hundred of which formed the 
first battalion of the Peruvian legion under the com- 
mand of Colonel Miller. The expedition sailed from 
Callao in several transports conveyed by the frigate 
'"O'Higgins, " and disembarked at Arica. 

At this time the viceroy La Serna had established 
his headquarters at Cuzco ; while there were ro3^alist 
divisions 5,000 strong at Xauxa under Canterac, 3,000 
strong under Valdez in the south, and near the coast, 
and 3,000 strong at Potosi under Olafieta. 

Alvarado had shown himself to be an excellent regi- 
mental officer under San Martin, but he wanted decision 
and dash when placed in an independent command. 
The Spanish General Valdez only had about 2,500 men 
in the valleys of Locumba, Moquegua and Sama. He 



THE FIRST PRESIDENT 259 

might have been routed at once by the rapid move- 
ments of an enterprising opponent, but delay was fatal, 
for Canterac was hurrying up reinforcements from the 
north and Carratala from Puno. Alvarado could not 
make up his mind what to do, and remained inactive 
near Arica for several weeks. At last Miller was 
sent on detached service, embarking at Arica with or- 
ders to land at Camana and endeavor to divert the 
attention of Canterac and Carratala. Alvarado advanced 
to Tacna, and marched thence to Moquegua on the 19th 
of January, 1823. Valdez was encamped on the heights 
of Torata, above Moquegua, where ha was joined by 
Canterac, and every attempt of Alvarado to dislodge 
them proved unavailing. 

Miller had rejoined the main body, and Alvarado 
proceeded to attack the heights of Torata, where Val- 
dez had made a very judicious selection of strong po- 
sitions. They were assaulted for several hours, and 
the Peruvian legion behaved with special gallantry. 
These young troops were led by Colonel Miller, a man 
of cool and correct judgment, and quite unprejudiced. 
It will, therefore, be interesting in this place to exam- 
ine the opinion he formed of the Peruvians as soldiers. 
His evidence is that the Indians are very strong-limbed 
and capable of enduring great fatigue. They perform 
a long journey with marvelous rapiditv, and a battalion 
has been known to march thirteen and fourteen leagues 
in one day. They are naturally brave, docile, quick at 
learning their duties, supple in limbs, sober, hardy, 
cheerful, and subordinate under fatigue and privations, 
so that they make admirable soldiers. Miller's battal- 
ion was cut to pieces in the battle of Torata, but men 
and officers behaved nobly. The firmness with which 
the enemy's cavalry charges were repulsed after the 



26o A HISTORY OF PERU 

rest ot the army had given wa}^ and the sang froid^\\\\ 
which the battalion maneuvered under fire, drew forth 
expressions of applause from Canterac himself. Yet 
they were all recruits. Pedro de la Rosa, Tarramona, 
Escobar and six other subalterns were killed, leading 
on their men, all from seventeen to twenty-four j^ears of 
age. They were officers who would have done honor 
to any European service, and their contempt of danger 
inspired their men with enthusiastic valor. 

The battle of Torata was fought on the 19th of Janu- 
ary, 1823. Toward night Alvarado retreated, but halted 
on the 2ist in a state of indecision. The ro3'alists again 
attacked him outside Moquegua and there was a com- 
plete rout. Alvarado fled to the port of Ylo, where 
he was only able to embark about a third of his force. 
Miller, with the small remnant of his battalion, retreated 
along the coast. The}^ reached Callao on the 12th of 
March, 1823. 

The failure of the Alvarado expedition led to a change 
of government and, after an existence of five months 
the executive committee of three was dissolved. On 
February 26th, 1823, the principal officers of the patriot 
arm}^ near Lima set forth, in an animated and forcible 
address to congress, the critical state of affairs. They 
recommended the appointment of Riva x\guero as pres- 
ident of the republic. The document was signed by 
several who became famous in the future history of 
their countr}^ : including Santa Cruz, Gamarra, and La 
Fuente. The name also of Juan Pardo Zela appears, 
the young officer whose conspiracy, when a prisoner in 
Callao Castle, came to such a fatal termination. He 
was now a colonel in the patriot army. 

The congress concurred, and Don Jose de la Riva 
Aguero became the first president of the republic of 



THE FIRST PRESIDENT 1^1 

Peru. He took the oaths, and was bound with a bi- 
colored scarf of red and white, on the 28th of Febru- 
ary, 1823. On the 4th of March, the congress gave 
him the rank of grand marshal. Santa Cruz received 
chief command of the forces, with the rank of general 
of division, Gamarra was appointed chief of the staff, 
and Miller became a general of brigade. A national 
flag was adopted, red, white, red, perpendicular. 

Riva Aguero displayed great activity, and Santa Cruz 
brought the army to a high state of efficiency, both as 
regards numbers and equipment. Peruvians were at 
the head of affairs for the first time. In three months 
the president created two armies, formed a plan of 
campaign, sent an expedition to Arica, and placed 
Callao in a position of defence. He raised a loan, 
obtained funds from foreign merchants, organized a re- 
serve force at Truxillo, and increased the little nav}? 
which was gradually being formed by Captain Guise. 
Without the energetic measures of Riva Aguero, at 
this juncture, the Spaniards w^ould have recovered Peru. 

An expedition under the command of Santa Cruz 
sailed from Callao in May, 1823, consisting of 5,000 
men. The principal officers were General Gamarra, 
Colonels Bias Cerdena, a native of the Canary Isles, 
Pardo Zela, Placencia and Elespuru. The force con- 
sisted of six battalions of infantry, three squadrons of 
horse, and eight field-pieces. Santa Cruz formed his. 
little army into divisions under himself and Gamarra.. 

He entered La Paz August 7th, 1823, having met 
with no opposition, and Gamarra occupied Oruro. 
They were thus one hundred and fift}^ miles apart. 
The Spanish General Olaneta fell back on Potosi. Val- 
dez, who exceeded even Canterac in the celerit};' of his 
movements, was at Andahuaylas. In his march to 



262 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Puno he actually averaged twenty miles a day for fifty- 
seven successive days, in part over a most difficult moun- 
tainous road. On the approach of the royalists, Santa 
Cruz left La Paz and marched to the Dasaguadero, 
which he crossed, encountering Valdez with i,8oo men 
at Zepita. The forces under Santa Cruz numbered 
about 1, 600. A battle was fought on the 25th of Au- 
gust, 1823. Colonel Cerdefia, leading on his battalion, 
was severely wounded and the soldiers, seeing their 
leader fall, retired in disorder. Two other battalions 
were repulsed and fled. At that moment a brilliant 
charge of the Peruvian cavalry retrieved the fortunes 
of the da}^ Valdez was routed, and retreated to Po- 
mata on the road back to Puno, on the west side of 
Lake Titicaca, while Santa Cruz retired behind the 
Desaguadero, to keep open his communication with 
Gamarra at Oruro. 

The viceroy La Serna was marching from Cuzco to 
support Valdez, whom he joined at Pomata, three days 
after the battle of Zepita. The combined force mus- 
tered 4,500 men. Santa Cruz hastil}^ retreated toward 
Oruro, forming a junction with Gamarra on the 8th of 
September. The royalists crossed the Desaguadero 
at Calacota in balsas, and followed in pursuit, going 
over one hundred and ninety miles in eight days. 
Forming a junction with Olafieta, the viceroy was in 
overpowering force, and Santa Cruz fled toward the 
coast. The rapid retreat caused a panic, insubordina- 
tion ensued, and there was a general dispersion. Many 
perished in a dreadful snow storm near Kyo 2.yo. Santa 
Cruz hurried down to Moquegua with a remnant of 
his army, barely numbering 1,300 men, out of an army 
of 7,000. He embarked at Ylo on board a ship com- 
manded by Captain Guise, and arrived at Callao. 



THE FIRST PRESIDENT 263 

The viceroy returned to his headquarters at Cuzco. 
Canterac received command of the royalist army of 
the north, to be stationed in the valley of Xauxa, 
threatening Lima. Valdez became general of the army 
of the south, at Arequipa and Puno. 

In completing the account of the Santa Cruz expedi- 
tion, events at Lima have been somewhat anticipated. 
Soon after the departure of the expedition of Santa 
Cruz from Callao, an auxiliary force of 3,000 Colom- 
bians arrived with General Sucre as diplomatic agent 
for the government of Bolivar. Meanwhile Canterac 
concentrated 9,000 men in the valley of Xauxa, and 
prepared to march on the capital. Great consterna- 
tion and alarm was caused at Lima by his approach. 
The president, Riva Aguero, summoned a council of 
war, at which Sucre was elected commander-in-chief. 
It was determined that Lima should be abandoned, and 
that the patriot forces should retire under the guns of 
Callao Castle. Canterac entered Lima on the i6th of 
June, 1823, with 9,000 well equipped troops and four- 
teen field-pieces. 

Sucre was secretly intriguing to undermine the gov- 
ernm.ent of Riva Aguero, and prepare the way for the 
advent of his master, Bolivar. He, and his colleague 
Tomas Heres, seduced and corrupted several members 
of the Peruvian congress, and through their means a 
revolution was prepared at Callao. On the 19th of 
June, 1823, the president Riva Aguero was lawlessly 
deposed. Don Jose Bernardo Tagle, Marquis of Torre 
Tagle, a weak, unprincipled man who was the tool 
of Bolivar, was nominally placed in command of the 
Peruvian executive with the title of supreme delegate, 
but General Sucre retained all the power in his own 



264 A HISTORY OF PERU 

hands, as commander-in-chief.. Canterac evacuated 
Lima on July 17th and returned to the Sierra. 

Riva Aguero proceeded to Truxillo, with the loyal 
majority of the congress, where they resumed their 
sittings, and where the president assembled a force of 
3,000 men. He continued in power there for six 
months; but on the 25th of November, 1823, he was 
arrested by Colonel La Fuente, one of his own officers, 
and placed in confinement, Torre Tagle, at the insti- 
gation of Bolivar, sentenced the president to be shot as 
a traitor, while La Fuente was advanced to the rank 
of general of brigade. 

Fortunatel}' Admiral Guise arrived at Huanchaco, the 
port of Truxillo, at this juncture. He insisted upon the 
liberation of Riva Aguero and that he should be allowed 
to retire to Europe. For this timely interference Guise 
incurred the lasting enmity of Bolivar. 

Don Jose de la Riva Aguero, who would have 
been the means of liberating Peru with a Peruvian 
army if the intrigues of Bolivar and Sucre had not 
thwarted him, was thus- driven into exile. He pub- 
lished a vindication of his administration in London in 
1824, and addressed another memoir to the Peruvian 
congress from Antwerp in 1827. Grand Marshal Riva 
Aguero was also Marquis of Monte Alegre, and a 
Knight of the order of Charles HL He married, on 
the 26th of June, 1826, the Princess Caroline, daughter 
of Duke Charles Louis Auguste de Looz et Corswaren, 
at the Chateau de Boulez in Brabant. In 1831 the 
grand marshal was allowed to return to Peru, but his 
support of Santa Cruz led to his second banishment in 
1839. In 1847 he was once more free to return to his 
native land, and he died in 1850. One of his sons, in 
after years, was an accomplished Peruvian statesman. 



THE FIRST PRESIDENT 265 

Riva Aguero is one of the most interesting characters 
in the history of Peruvian independence. Born to a 
good position in the days of the viceroys, and with the 
advantages of a libera] education and of European travel, 
he devoted all the energies of a young and ardent mind 
to the cause of his countr3^'s independence. He en- 
tered upon this work when it was a service of danger, 
when the public teaching of liberal ideas was punished 
with imprisonment and even death. Undaunted by 
the perilous nature of his undertaking he persevered 
until a public opinion in favor of freedom had been 
formed in Peru. He thus smoothed the way for San 
Martin and was the most potent agent in the success of 
his enterprise. When the independence of Peru was 
declared, Riva Aguero was the most distinguished Pe- 
ruvian liberal. His nomination by the congress to the 
high office of first president of Peru was the goal of his 
legitimate ambition. He had capacity and the means 
of leading his country to ultimate victory. The Span- 
iards, cut off from all communication with the mother 
country, must have succumbed sooner or later under 
any circumstances. Foreign chiefs and dictators were 
not needed, and the intrigues of Bolivar were fraught 
with calamity to Peru. San Martin was devoted to a 
noble cause. Bolivar was mainly actuated by personal 
ambition. 

The congress of 1822, which elected Riva Aguero, 
had promulgated a constitution. It also abolished all 
titles of nobility, as well as the order of the Sun insti- 
tuted by San Martin, declaring them to be incompat- 
ible with republican institutions. General Bolivar 
landed at Callao on the ist of September, 1823, and 
the members of congress, who had supported General 
Sucre's revolution, dissolved themselves on the loth of 



266 A HISTORY OF PERT! 

February, 1824, and conferred an absolute dictator- 
ship on the Colombian chief. 

Simon Bolivar was born at Caraccas on July 24th, 
1783, being the second son of Don Juan Vicente Boli- 
var y Ponte, a colonel of militia in the plains of Aragua 
in Venezuela, by Dona Maria Concepcion Palacios y 
Sojo. Both were natives of Caraccas, and "Mantua- 
nas, " a kind of aristocracy in Venezuela. The name 
is Basque. The father died in 1786 and the mother in 
1789. Young Simon was left an orphan, with an elder 
brother who died in 1815, and two sisters. The fam- 
ily enj05^ed a good income from the produce of large 
cattle estates. The favorite residence of the Bolivars 
was at one of these farms called San Mateo. They 
also had a beautiful country house in the valley of Ara- 
gua, near the lake of Valencia, which was destro3'ed b}'' 
Boves in 1814. Simon Bolivar was sentto Spain at the 
age of fourteen and went thence to France, leading a 
dissolute life at Paris for several years. In 1802, at the 
age of nineteen, he returned to Madrid and married 
Teresa, daughter of Dom Bernardo de Toro, w^hose age 
was sixteen. The}^ returned to Caraccas in 1809 and 
his wife died childless a few 5^ears afterward. Bolivar 
then went to Europe a second time, and returned in 
company with Emparan, the new captain-general of 
Venezuela, appointed by the regenc}^ of Cadiz. 

On April 19th, 1810, there was a revolution in Vene- 
zuela. General Emparan was deposed, and a govern- 
ment was formed, consisting of Don Martin Tobar and 
others. Bolivar declined to join the movement. But 
he accepted an appointment as envoy to England, to 
solicit protection for Venezuela ; where he was well re- 
ceived by the Marquis Wellesley, then minister of 
foreign affairs. The mediation of the British govern- 



THE FIRST PRESTDENT 267 

merit was offered and declined by Spain, Bolivar 
returned in company with General Miranda, who was 
placed in command of the Venezuelan troops. The 
opening of the political career of the hero of Colom- 
bian independence was not very creditable. Miranda 
induced him to accept the grade of lieutenant-colonel 
and the command of Puerto Cabello, the strongest 
fortress in the country. In June, 1812, Bolivar deserted 
his post, and embarked in an armed schooner for La 
Guayra, leaving behind garrison, arms, and stores of 
ammunition. He retired to his estate of San Mateo, 
and the Spanish General Monteverde at once look 
possession of Puerto Cabello. The transaction reveals 
the man's character. The defection obliged Miranda 
to come to terms with the Spaniards, and the first 
republic of Venezuela ceased to exist. Soon afterward, 
in defiance of the agreement, Miranda was arrested, 
transported to Cadiz in irons, and imprisoned in a fort 
where he lingered for some years and died. Bolivar 
was guilty as an aider and abettor of the arrest. Do- 
mingo Monteverde entered Caraccas as captain-general 
of Venezuela on the gth of August, 1812. 

Bolivar now had the field clear for his own ambi- 
tious schemes. He went to Curacoa and thence to Car- 
tagena, where he obtained command of a small force 
and proceeded up the Magdalena river, defeating some 
royalist detachments. He crossed the Venezuelan 
frontier and, as the Spaniards gave no quarter, he 
declared a war of extermination. Continuing to be 
successful in his encounters with royalist troops, he 
approached Caraccas and entered the city on August 
4th, 1813. Bolivar now sacrificed a large portion of his 
private fortune in maintaining his troops, and con- 
ducted the expedition with great skill and persever- 



268 A HISTORY OF PERU . 

ance. On January 2nd, 1814, he was deciared dictator 
of Venezuela. A counter-revolution was brought about 
in the llanos or vast plains in the centre of Venezuela 
b}^ a Spaniard named Jose Tomas Boves, who organ- 
ized a large force of mounted ruffians and occupied the 
valley of Aragua. Bolivar's troops were dispersed, 
and he was forced to evacuate Caraccas. He fled into 
New Granada, and a congress, assembled at Tarija, 
conferred on him the command of the forces of that 
country. 

The Spanish government resolved to make a great 
effort to suppress these insurrections. They sent out 
an army of 10,000 men under General Morillo. When 
the news of their arrival reached Bolivar, he at once 
fled to Jamaica, and Morillo reconquered Venezuela 
and New Granada. He was a ruthless t3Tant, and 
shot the leading patriots at Bogota in great numbers. 
In 1817 Bolivar made a descent upon Venezuela, landed 
at Angostura, and fought several indecisive actions 
with detachments of Spanish troops. An English 
legion arrived in i8ig to re-inforce the patriots, con- 
sisting of disbanded soldiers well equipped and num- 
bering 2,000 men. The Venezuelan congress was in- 
stalled at Angostura in February, 1819, and Bolivar 
was elected president of the republic. 

Samano, the viceroy of New Granada, then advanced 
into Venezuela, to unite his forces with those of Gen- 
eral Barrero. Bolivar, with rapid military intuition, 
boldly marched his army so as to interpose between 
them, before they could form a junction. The battle 
of Boyaca followed. It was fought on the 7th of Au- 
gust, 1819. The English under Colonel Mackintosh 
rendered important service, and the victory of Bolivar 
was complete. Three days afterward he entered Bo- 
gota in triumph. On December 25th, 1819, a congress 



THE FIRST PRESIDENT 269 

decreed that New Granada and Venezuela should hence- 
forward form one republic to be called Colombia. Bo- 
livar was chosen the first president with the title of lib- 
erator. Morillo returned to Europe in 1820, and Gen- 
eral la Torre succeeded him in command of the royalist 
army. On June 24th, 1821, Bolivar attacked it at Cara- 
bobo near Caraccas, and a patriot victory decided the 
fate of Colombia. The liberator then turned his atten- 
tion to Quito. Assembling a force at Popayan he ad- 
vanced southward, preceded by his lieutenant Sucre. 
The latter won the battle of Pichincha on the 24th of 
May, 1822, and Quito became part of the vast republic 
of Colombia. Bolivar entered Quito on the i6th of 
June, annexed Guayaquil and obtained leave from the 
obsequious congress of Colombia to proceed to Peru. 
His age was then forty. 

Bolivar was a little man, only five feet, four inches 
in height. His face was long, with hollow cheeks and 
livid brown complexion, eyes sunk deep in the head, 
body thin and meagre. A large moustache and whiskers 
covered part of his face. He was passionately fond 
of dancing and of lolling in a Spanish hammock. His 
character was made up of vanity, ambition, profound 
dissimulation and a thirst for absolute power. He 
had read little and was a bombastic writer. He never 
smoked. His voice was loud and harsh, and. he in- 
dulged in fits of passion and personal abuse, his tem- 
per being fiery and capricious. His manners were gen- 
erally good, but not prepossessing. 

Antonio Jose de Sucre, Bolivar's second in command, 
was born at Cumana, in Venezuela, on the 13th of 
June, 1793, the son of Don Vicente Sucre by Ana Ma 
ria de Alcala. Entering the army in 181 1, he served 
with credit under Miranda, and afterward under Piar. 



270 A HISTORY OF PERU 

From i8i4to iSiyhewas on the staff of the Colombian 
army, and he afterward commanded a division sent to 
assist the province of Guayaquil. His great military 
achievem.ent, before his arrival in Peru, was the vic- 
tory of Pichincha. 

For two years and a half the destinies of Peru were 
placed under the absolute control of these two Colom- 
bians, Bolivar and Sucre. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE UNDER BOLIVAR 

The Dictator Bolivar made his public entry into 
Lima on the ist of September, 1823, and the remainder 
of the year was devoted to the organization of the army. 
The patriot forces numbered 7,000 men two-thirds be- 
ing Colombians. On February 7th, 1824, a serious dis- 
aster weakened their position. The garrison of Callao 
Castle, headed by a mulatto serjeant named Moyano, 
mutinied and imprisoned the governor, General Alva- 
rado, and the other officers. The men were Chileans 
and Argentines. They demanded payment of arrears. 
A royalist prisoner. Colonel Casariego, was made gov- 
ernor, and on the i8th the Spanish colors were hoisted. 
A letter was then despatched to General Canterac at 
Xauxa, inviting him to take possession. On March 
3rd General Monet, with a royalist division, entered 
the castle. Eventually General Rodil was left as gov- 
eror, Monet returning to Xauxa. At this time many 
half-hearted people at Lima began to vacillate, fear- 
ing the consequences to themselves if Bolivar failed 
and the Spaniards returned to power. Among these 
doubters were the Marquis of Torre Tagle and his 
family and the Viscount of San Donas. They went 

into Callao Castle, and most of them perished misera- 

271 



272 A HISTORY OF PERU 

bly during the long siege. Dr. Pezet, the liberal phy- 
sician and one of the earliest advocates of freedom, 
was captured by the Spaniards, and forced to edit the 
Spanish Gazette in the castle, but he also died there, 
leaving a son who in after years, was destined to be- 
come president of Peru. 

Bolivar abandoned Lima, when the royalists got 
posssesion of Callao Castle, hfe established his head- 
quarters between Pativilcas and Huara, with a force 
of 6,000 Colombians and 4,000 Peruvians. In July, 
1824, he commenced his march over the cordillera 
toward Cerro Pasco in quest of the enemy under Can- 
terac. The infantry was in three divisions, two Colom- 
bian under Lara and Cordova, and one Peruvian under 
Lamar. The brigade of cavalry was commanded by 
General Necochea, the Argentine officer who led the 
vanguard in the passage of San Martin across the pass 
of Uspallata. Under him the Peruvian squadrons were 
led by General Miller, the Colombian by Carbajal and 
Bruiz. General Sucre was chief of the staff, and Dr. 
Sanchez Carrion, a native of Huamachuco, accompanied 
the dictator, as minister of the affairs of Peru. Great 
attention had been paid to the commissariat and trans- 
port departments, and care was taken that the men 
received their pay. Each soldier got nine dollars a 
month, of which four dollars were deducted on account 
of rations. Their cattle followed the army at a dis- 
tance of two day's march. 

On the 2nd of August, 1824, Bolivar reviewed the 
army on the plain between Raucas and Cerro Pasco. 
It was g,ooo strong. Canterac had advanced from 
Xauxa and encamped at Reyes on the 4th. With the 
object of intercepting the royalists, Bolivar marched 
along the western border of Lake Chinchay-cocha or 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 273 

Reyes ; and at 2 p. m. on August 6th the opposing 
forces came in sight of each other. The royalists were 
a little to the south of Reyes, marching over the plain 
of Junin, which is 12,000 feet above the level of the 
sea. On seeing the enemy, the patriot cavalry, about 
nine hundred strong, dismounted from their mules, 
removed their saddles to the led horses, quickened 
their pace, and, somewhat imprudently, advanced to 
within a mile of the royalist army, which therefore 
halted. Ordering his infantry and artillery to continue 
their retreat, Canterac then placed himself at the head 
of his cavalry, upward of 1,000 strong, and formed in 
line, each squadron in column, and doubled at each 
flank. He charged before the patriot cavalry had 
time to deploy, after passing a defile formed by an 
extensive morass. Miller, with two Peruvian squad- 
rons, was ordered to outflank the enemy's right. Wheel- 
ing to the left he was separated from the rest of the 
cavahy, but the enemy's right also breaking from the 
royalist line and diverging to its right, came on too 
quickly to enable him to accomplish his object. He 
could only again wheel to the right and charge the 
enemy in front. His squadrons were soon overpow- 
ered, and fled for a short distance along the border of 
the morass. At this critical moment. Colonel Suarez 
came up with a fresh squadron, charged the enemy in 
his rear, checked the pursuit, and gave time for Miller 
to face about and form again. The enemy was then 
attacked with renewed ardor, and ultimately routed. 
All was thought to be lost when the Peruvian cavalry 
thus turned defeat into victory, for the Colombian and 
Argentine squadrons had also been driven back, and 
Necochea was severely wounded. The Spaniards left 
two hundred and fifty dead on the field, and sixty 



274 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

prisoners. They retreated in the utmost confusion, 
while the patriot loss did not exceed fifty killed and 
wounded. The dictator conferred the title of "Husares 
de Junin" on the Peruvian cavalry. Not a musket or 
pistol shot was fired, the formidable lance doing all 
the work. No infantry was engaged. Necochea being 
disabled by wounds, the command of the whole of the 
cavalry devolved upon General Miller. The battle of 
Junin opened the Sierra country to the patriots, for 
Canterac retired in great disorder to join the viceroy 
at Cuzco. 

Bolivar at once advanced to Xauxa, and the army 
reached Guamanga on the 24th of August. When the 
ungrateful Chileans drove their liberator O'Higgins 
from his native country, he went to Peru, and proposed 
to accompany Bolivar as a simple volunteer. By hard 
riding he overtook the army at Huancayo on the i8th, 
and was cordially welcomed. The army remained a 
month at Guamanga and then advanced to the Apuri- 
mac, within sixty miles of Cuzco. Bolivar reconnoitered 
the river and, early in October, he took leave of the army 
and returned to the coast, ordering General Sucre to go 
into cantonments at Abancay and Andahuaylas. General 
O^Higgins returned with Bolivar to the coast at Huacho. 
The Peruvian government granted the exiled Chilean 
general a pension, and the fine estate of Montalvo in 
the valley of Canete. There he lived for many years 
with his mother and sister, and he died at Lima in 
1842. 

On hearing of the battle of Junin, and the retreat of 
Canterac, General Valdez hurried up from the south, 
so as to concentrate the Spanish army at Cuzco. The 
viceroy La Serna had a well appointed arsenal there, 
and a force of 12,000 men. Canterac was his chief of 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 275 

staff, Carratala adjutant-general. Three divisions of 
infantry were under Valdez, Monet, and Villalobos. 
Ferras commanded the cavalry 1,500 strong, and the 
artillery, consisting of twenty-four field-pieces, was 
entrusted to Colonel Cacho. 

Cuzco was the last stronghold of Spanish power 
in South x-\merica ; and from the old city of the Incas, 
the viceroy was about to march in the forlorn hope of 
recovering the lost colony. Fighting in a bad cause, 
and with no bright anticipations, the royalists opened 
the campaign with feelings of despondency which 
they could not overcome. It soon, however, became 
evident that the viceroy intended to commence offensive 
operations. On the 6th of November the patriot army 
was at Lambrama about twenty miles south of Aban- 
cay, when intelligence was received that the viceroy, 
in great force, had left Cuzco and was marching, by 
wa}' of Abanca}', to Guamanga, which place he reached 
on the i6th. He had got between Sucre and his base 
of operations, and could intercept his line of retreat 
to the coast. There was nothing left for Sucre to do 
but to follow the Spanish army. La Serna turned 
around and advanced from Guamanga to meet him. 
The advance guards of the hostile forces encountered 
each other on the heights of Bombon, to the east of 
the river Pampas, which flows at the bottom of a pro- 
found ravine cutting the line of road. A swinging 
rope bridge spans the gorge. After a sharp encounter, 
on the 20th of November, the royalists retreated across 
the river and cut the bridge. 

Sucre was in great anxiet}^ to re-open his communi- 
cation with the coast. He led his troops down the 
side of the declivitous ravine, and the infantry waded 
across the river Pampas at a place where it was breast 



276 A HISTORY OF PERU 

deep. The passage occupied a whole day, but only 
two lives were lost. On the 30th the patriots e'ncamped 
on the malarious river bank. Next day they climbed 
the western ascent for thousands of feet, and encamped 
at Matara on the plateau, tv/enty-five miles from Gua- 
manga. 

The retreat was resumed on the 3rd of December 
and, while defiling into the valley of Corpa-huayccu, 
the patriots were briskly attacked by a division under 
General Valdez. The Colombian rifles commanded by 
Colonel Sands of Dublin were routed and dispersed. 
Major Duckbury, an Englishman, and about two 
hundred men were killed. But the rest had crossed 
the stream, and the attempt of the royalists to follow 
up their success was repulsed. Sucre continued his 
march to Tambo-Cangallo, twenty miles south of Gua- 
manga. 

The two armies were now marching near each other, 
on parallel lines. Sucre crossed the deep and ragged 
ravine of Acroco, and encamped around the village of 
Quinua on the 6tl^ of Dece|iiber. The royalists con- 
tinued their parallel march) and headed completely 
around the patriots, passing through Paccay-casa and 
Guamanguilla. In the afternoon of the 8th the viceroy 
moved from Guamanguilla, and occupied the steep 
heights of Condor-kunka to the eastward, and in full 
view of Quinua. 

The village of Quinua is 11,600 feet above the level 
of the sea, and within-a,^quarter of a mJle of the famous 
battle-field of Ayacucfio, which is on rather higher 
ground. The range of heights called Condor-kunka 
(literally "Condor's neck") are very precipitous, and 
rise abruptly from>the little plain which slopes down 
toward Quinua. They -are covered with brushwood. 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 277 

The plain is of small extent, about a mile broad, 
bounded on the south by the profound and almost 
perpendicular ravine of Hatun-huayccu, and on the 
north by the gently sloping depression of Venda-mayu, 
through which runs a little stream bordered by alder 
and molle trees. This streamlet, after a course of about 
a mile east and west, makes a sharp turn, and separates 
Quinua from the battle-field. In a corner where the 
valley of Venda-mayu approaches the mountains of Con- 
dor-kunka, is A3^acucho (literally "Corner of Death") 
where, some five hundred years before, the Inca Yupan- 
qui Pachacutec had routed the Pocras Indians. 

General Sucre was a young man of thirty-one, but 
with many years of campaigning experience. On the 
7th of December, 1824, he established his headquarters 
at a ruined chapel on the plain of Ayacucho, called San 
Cristoval. For an hour before sunset the light infan- 
try of both sides skirmished at the foot of the heights. 
It was unanimously resolved, by a council of war called 
together by Sucre, to fight on the morrow, as the 
provisions and ammunition were failing. So hungry 
was the patriot army that the sign and countersign for 
the night were "pan y queso" ("bread and cheese.") 
At midnight the young Colombian general, Cordova, 
marched silently across the plain, with a company of 
infantry, and poured a volley into the royalist watch 
fires. This caused the death of the Spanish brigadier 
Palomares who was lying asleep. A wooden cross 
now marks the spot where he died. 

When morning dawned General Sucre formed his 
order of battle. General Gamarra was his chief of 
staff, and Colonel Ramon Castilla was adjutant-general. 
The Colombian division of General Cordova was posted 
on the right, with Hatun-huayccu on his right flank. 



278 A HISTORY OF PERU 

The second Colombian division, under General Don 
Jacinto Lara, was in the centre, and the Peruvian di- 
vision of Lamar was on the left, resting on the Venda^ 
mayu ravine. The cavalry, under General Miller, was 
in the centre. The patriots had one field-piece — a 
four-pounder. The total number of men was 5,780, of 
whom 4,500 were Colombians, 1,200 Peruvians, and 
eighty Argentines. 

The viceroy had his encampment on the steep ascent 
among bushes. La Serna's rank had been recognized 
by the Spanish government, in spite of the irregularity 
of his first appointment, and he had been created 
Count of the Andes. He posted the division of Villa- 
lobos on the left, facing Cordova ; Monet in the cen- 
tre j and Valdez on the right. The field-pieces, re- 
duced to eleven, were planted in a place called Chichi- 
cancha, on the edge of the ravine of Hatun huayccu. 
The total number of the royalists was 9,310. 

The morning of the 9th of December dawned par- 
ticularly fine. At 9. A. M. the division of Villalobos 
began to descend, and the viceroy La Serna, on foot, 
placed himself in its front ranks. Canterac remained on 
the heights with a reserve force. The division of Monet 
began to move a few minutes after Villalobos, the cav- 
alry leading their horses between the infantry of each 
division. As the troops reached the plain they formed 
into column. 

At this juncture Cordova, shouting, "Onward with 
the tread of conquerors!" charged with his Colombians 
in four parallel columns. The Colombian cavalry, 
under Colonel Silva, charged at the same time, and 
he fell, covered with wounds. After a fierce and pro- 
longed encounter the royalist infantry lost ground, 
and was driven back. The viceroy was wounded and 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 279 

taken prisoner ; while Monet and Villalobos retreated 
up the steep ascent in confusion. Meanwhile Valdez had 
made a tour of nearly a league, and threatened the left 
flank of the patriots along the Venda-mayu stream. He 
opened a heavy fire on the Peruvians under Lamar, and 
drove them back, A part of the division of Lara, sent 
to support them, also began to waver and give way. 

The royalists crossed the stream and pressed upon 
them. At this critical moment General Miller led a 
charge of the "Husares de Junin" against the advanc- 
ing enemy, and drove them back in some confusion, 
giving time for the Peruvian infantry to rally and re- 
new the fight. They crossed the stream under the 
lead of Colonel Jose Maria Plaza, a native of Mendoza, 
but naturalized in Peru. The Peruvians now fought 
so resolutely that the division of Valdez was broken, 
the cavalry flying in disorder, and the infantry dis- 
persing. 

The victory of the patriots was complete. The bat- 
tle of Ayacucho lasted about an hour. It ended the 
war. The royalists lest 1,400 killed and seven hundred 
wounded. Of the patriots three hundred and seven were 
killed and six hundred and nine wounded. Before 
sunset General Canterac sued for terms, and a capitu- 
lation was signed. The viceroy La Serna, Generals 
Canterac, Valdez, Monet, Villalobos, Carratala, Landaz- 
uri, Bedoya,Ferras, Garcia Camba, Cacho, Pardo, Vigil 
and Tur, sixteen colonels, sixty eight lieutenant-col- 
onels, four hundred and eighty-four subalterns, and 
3,200 privates became prisoners of war. Most of the 
Spanish officers, in accordance with the terms of the 
capitulation, received their passports and returned 
home by way either of Callao or Buenos Ayres. Among 
them was Baldomero Espartero, the future Duke of Vic- 



28o A HISTORY OF PERU 

toria and Regent of Spain, who served about eight 
years in Peru. When the news of the capitulation 
reached Arequipa, Don Pio Tristan assumed the title 
and office of viceroy, but he was unable to maintain 
his position, and surrendered to General Otero after 
three weeks. Many years afterward a little, old gen- 
tleman, in a brown wig, used to be pointed out at 
Lima as the last vicero}^ of Peru. 

The Spanish generals, cut off from all communica- 
tion with the outer world, and left entirely on their 
own resources, certainly made a very gallant stand. 
The celerity of their marches was marvelous, and both 
Valdez and Canterac certainly displayed military talent 
of a very high order. 

Immediately after the battle General Gamarra set 
out for Cuzco, of which city he was appointed prefect. 
General Santa Cruz became prefect of Guamanga, and 
Miller of Puno. The name of the city of Guamanga 
was changed to Ayacucho in honor of the battle. The 
news of the great victory was received with transports 
of ]oy throughout the cauntry ; and with good reason. 
The chains were burst asunder. They had eaten into the 
flesh of the country to the very bone, during three cen- 
turies. The monopoly was gone. Men could breathe 
freel}^, could say what they pleased above a whisper, 
could go in and out without fear. It was more than a 
victory. It was a change from death to life. No wonder 
nothing was good enough for the heroes of Ayacucho. 
The country felt that it owed them everything. Out of 
their number Lamar, Gamarra, Salaverry, Pezet, Tor- 
rico, Bermudez, Vivanco, and San Roman, no less than 
eight, became, in after years, either presidents of the 
republic, or temporary chiefs of the state. 

General Sucre rested for a fortnight at Cuzco and 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 281 

then continued his march southward to Puno, which 
place he entered on the ist of February, 1825. The 
reactionary Spanish General Olaneta still held out in 
upper Peru amidst daily desertions. K\. last there 
was a mutiny, and he was killed by his own troops in 
April, 1825. 

On February loth, 1825, Bolivar assembled the mem- 
bers of the old congress who had joined in Sucre's con- 
spiracy, and went through the farce of resigning the dic- 
tatorship. He was requested to remain at the head of af- 
fairs, and consented with much affectation of reluctance. 
This assembly broke up on the loth of March, and 
met again on the 29th with the exclusion of all men 
who were not entirely creatures of Bolivar. The rem- 
nant approved the tyrant's proposal of a life presi- 
dentship, and was dismissed on the ist of May. The 
dictator then set out on a triumphal tour. Traveling 
along the coast to Arequipa, he reached Cuzco on the 
26th of June, and La Paz, in upper Peru, on the 18th 
of August. On October 5th, he was at Potosi, and in 
November at Chuquisaca. The whole tour was one con- 
tinued ovation. In traveling across the basin of Lake 
Titicaca, Bolivar was met by a deputation of Indians 
headed by Chuqui-huanca, the chief of Azangaro, who 
delivered the following eloquent address of welcome : — 
"It pleased God to form a great empire out of savages, 
and He created Manco Capac. The people sinned and 
He delivered them up to Pizarro. After three centuries 
of expiation He has taken compassion on their sufferings, 
and has sent you. You, then, are the fulfiller of the design 
of providence, and no former deeds appear equal to those 
which have been done by you. You have liberated 
five nations. In the great destiny to which they are 
called, they will raise your fame higher still. As the 



282 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ages roll on, your glory will increase, as the shade 
lengthens when the sun goes down." 

At the furthest point of his tour southward, Bolivar 
created a new nation. Tn August, 1825, a general 
assembl}^ had met at Chuquisaca, and decreed that Up- 
per Peru should be a separate and independent republic, 
with the name of Bolivia in honor of the dictator. Up- 
per Peru had been part of the vicero3^alty of Buenos 
Ayres since 1770. Situated in the heart of the Andes, 
at vast distances either from Lima or Buenos Ayres, 
its independence seemed desirable. Although isolated 
by its mountains, those very mountains contained the 
richest silver and copper mines in the world, while 
the eastern forests might be expected to offer prospects 
of future wealth. It was also arranged that Bolivia 
should have a small strip of sea coast between the 
boundaries of Chile and Peru, with Cobija as a sea- 
port. Bolivar framed a constitution for the new repub- 
lic, the principal feature of which was that the office 
of president was for life. General Sucre, who had re- 
ceived the title of marshal of Ayacucho, was chosen to 
be the first president of Bolivia on October 3rd, 1826. 
Chuquisaca was made the capital, its name being 
changed to Sucre, but La Paz is the principal town 
in Bolivia. 

During the absence of the dictator an executive com- 
mittee ruled at Lima, composed of the Colombian 
General Tomas Heres, Don Hipolito Unanue, and 
Don Jose Maria Pardo. 

The possession of Callao Castle by the Spaniards 
was a great source of annoyance and disquiet, and 
Peru now reaped the benefit of the services of Martin 
Guise, the founder of her navy. The Spanish frigate 
"Prueba" had received the name of "Protector" after 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 283 

San Martin, and Guise hoisted his flag on board her, 
as Peruvian admiral. He made several attacks on 
vessels moored under the guns of Callao Castle, and 
one night he went in with his boats, and burned the 
dismantled frigate, "Venganza, " and a brig. In Septem- 
ber, 1824, the Spanish seventy-four-gun ship "Asia" 
and the brig "Aquilas" arrived off Callao. Admiral 
Guise at once engaged them, and kept up a running 
fight for an hour. On the 8th of October, he fought 
another engagement with the "Asia" and two brigs, 
which continued for seven hours, both squadrons re- 
turning to their respective anchorages. But on the 
20th the"Asia" made all sail, followed by Guise for 
two days. Eventually the crew mutinied and the 
"Asia" was surrendered at Acapulco. The brig "Aqui- 
las" was taken by the Chileans. 

Admiral Guise, by the end of the year 1824, had 
increased the Peruvian navy to five pennants. These 
were the frigate "Protector," corvette "Pichincha," 
brig "Chimborazo", and schooners "Guayaquilefia" 
and "Macedonia." With the aid of Captain Carrasco, 
the patriotic cosmographer and mathematician, he was 
also training up a generation of young naval officers, 
including Mariategui, Postigo, Salcedo, Forcelledo, 
La Haza and others who continued to carry on the 
work of the Peruvian navy, and were spoken of, in 
after years, as veterans of the school of Guise. 

General Rodil held out in Callao Castle for thirteen 
months. He finally capitulated on the 19th of Janu- 
ary, 1826, and left Callao on board H. M. S. "Briton," 
commanded by Sir Murray Maxwell. 

In January, 1826, Bolivar returned to be present 
when a new congress met at Lima. But there were 
ominous signs of a general desire that Bolivar and his 



284 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Colombians should depart ; so ,the deputies were or- 
dered to return to their homes. News of disturbances 
in Colombia effected the deliverance of Peru, and the 
dictator sailed for Guayaquil. He left Lima on the 
3rd of September, 1826, never to return. General 
Lara remained in command of the Colombian soldiers. 
But a mutiny headed by Colonel Bustamente,. broke 
out in the night of the 26th of January, 1827. Lara 
was arrested in his bed, together with other chiefs, 
and all were embarked in a chartered vessel and sent 
to Guayaquil. The Colombian troops merely wanted 
to be paid and sent home. They embarked, under 
command of Colonel Bustamente, in March, 1827. 

As soon as they were free from foreign dictation, 
the people of Peru declared unanimously against Bol- 
ivar and his constitution. Orders were issued by Gen- 
eral Santa Cruz for the election of deputies for a new 
congress to settle the government of the country. Bol- 
ivar, after a troubled rule at Bogota of four years, dur- 
ing which a desperate attempt was made to assassinate 
him, retired to a small c-ountry house near Santa Mar- 
tha, where he died on the 17th of December, 1830. 
The unwieldy republic of Colombia then divided into 
the three independent states of New Granada, Vene- 
zuela and Ecuador. The latter republic was formed, 
in May, 1830, out of the old province of Quito, and 
became the northern neighbor of Peru. 

In September, 1826, General Santa Cruz became 
president of the council of government ; and the con- 
gress assembled at Lima on the 4th of June, 1827. It 
was the second free congress \ and Dr. Luna Pizarro 
was again a leading member. This assembly framed 
the provisional constitution of 1828, by which it was 
arranged that a national convention should meet in 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 285 

July, 1833, for the purpose of considering, reforming, 
and finally sanctioning a constitution. It also abol- 
ished all mayor azgos or entails. It then proceeded to 
elect a president, the choice being between Generals 
Lamar and Santa Cruz, the former receiving fifty-eight 
and the latter twenty-seven votes. General Lamar was 
declared president, and the Count of Vista Florida vice- 
president of the republic, on the 24th of August, 1827. 
The}^ had been the two leading members of the exec- 
utive council of three which was in power during the 
latter half of 1822. 

Jose de Lamar y Cortazar w^as born at Cuenca, in 
the province of Quito in 1778. Cuenca was included 
in Bolivar's republic of Colombia, and this fact ren- 
dered his election null and void, for b}^ the constitu- 
tion the president must be a Peruvian born. When 
very young Lamar went to Spain with his uncle Dr. 
Francisco Cortazar who had been a judge of the Audi- 
ence of Quito. At the age of sixteen he entered the 
Spanish army, and served as a major under Palafox 
at the gallant defence of Saragossa. Afterward he 
was in the campaign against Suchet in Valencia, was 
taken prisoner, and sent to Dijon. He escaped and, 
passing through Switzerland and the Tyrol, sailed from 
Trieste to Spain. In 1815 he was sent to Peru with 
the rank of a brigadier, and was governor of Callao 
Castle when it capitulated in 1821. Lamar sent his 
commission to the viceroy La Serna, retired from the 
Spanish army, and joined the patriots. San Martin 
made him a general of division. He commanded the 
Peruvian legion at Ayacucho ; but was jealous of the 
reputation gained by General Sucre, and detested the 
Colombians. 

Sucre had been elected president of Bolivia for life, 



286 A HISTORY OF PERU 

and the first measure of Lamar was to reverse all the 
arrangements of Bolivar in that country. He sent 
General Gamarra with a force of 5,000 men to the 
Bolivian frontier, with a demand that a new president 
should be elected in place of Sucre, that all Colombian 
troops should leave Bolivia, and that a congress should 
meet to substitute a new constitution for that of Boli- 
var. Sucre was obliged to agree to these demands, 
but the}^ caused a mutiny at Chuquisaca, in quelling 
which he was wounded in the arm. Gamarra crossed 
the frontier on the pretext of coming to his assistance, 
and entered La Paz on the 8th of May, 1828. The 
Bolivian ministry and Gamarra then signed the treaty 
of Piquiza on June 2nd, by w^hich all the demands of 
Lamar were conceded. General Sucre resigned in 
September and sailed from Arica for Guayaquil. After 
an interval of a year. General Don Andres Santa Cruz 
was elected president of Bolivia on January ist, 1829, 
and held the office for ten years. 

These proceedings naturally excited General Bolivar 
to fury. He declared w^ar on Peru on July 3rd, 1828; 
and Lamar was not unwilling. The Peruvian presi- 
dent had the design of annexing Guayaquil, and espec- 
ially his native place Cuenca, to Peru, in order to 
legalize his position. Gamarra was created a grand- 
marshal, as a reward for negotiating the treaty of Pi- 
quiza. The first operation was the capture of Guay- 
aquil by the Peruvians after a slight resistance, but 
the success was dearly bought with the death of Ad- 
miral Guise, who was killed at the attack on January 
2ist, 1829. Lamar then occupied the province of Loxa 
with 4,000, men, and advanced to within forty miles 
of Cuenca. He was opposed by General Flores, who 
proposed as terms of agreement that the boundary 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 287 

should be delineated by a joint commission. But 
Lamar also demanded the cession of Guayaquil and 
payment of all the expenses of the war by Colombia, 
to which Flores could not agree. Hostilities were 
commenced, and strategic manoeuvres occupied the 
interval between the 12th and 26th of February, 
1829. General Sucre, the m.arshal of Ayacucho, then 
came upon the scene in aid of Flores, and resolved to 
bring on an engagement. The Portete de Tarqui is a 
high hill, defended on its east flank by scarped sides, 
and on the west by a dense forest, while a narrow path 
crosses it from Giron, near Cuenca. In front of the 
hill a rivulet flows over a stony bed. General Plaza 
was stationed near this rivulet with two Peruvian bat- 
talions when he was attacked by the Colombians in 
front and on one flank. In the heat of the fi^ht La- 
mar and Gamarra came up with all their forces. Sucre 
then ordered his infantry to charge, and the Peruvians 
were so badly placed that only a part of the army could 
get into action. Lamar fought like a common soldier 
in front of the column of Cazadores, but at last he was 
obliged to order a retreat. Sucre then offered the orig- 
inal terms, with the addition that Peru was to pay 
$150,000, surrender Guayaquil within twenty days, 
and give up the corvette "Pichincha. " Lamar made 
these concessions, and the agreement was signed on 
the 28th, in the town of Giron. 

General Sucre, the marshal of Ayacucho, was assas- 
sinated at a place called Berruecos, in the province of 
Pasto, on the 4th of June, 1830. He had only reached 
his thirty-seventh year, and was universally mourned 
as an able and gallant soldier, warm friend and a gen- 
erous foe. 

President Lamar, with his glory tarnished, and his 



288 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ambitious schemes frustrated, retired to Piura. When 
the time expired for surrendering Guayaquil, he refused 
to compl}' with the terms of the treaty ; and seemed to 
contemplate a renewal of the war, ordering up troops 
in all directions. Suddenly Gamarra rose against 
him. His house at Piura was surrounded on June 7th, 
1829, and he was arrested by Colonel Miguel San 
Roman, the same who, when a little boy, had been 
with Pumacagua at the battle of Umachiri. The charges 
brought against Lamar were that he was breaking the 
terms of the treaty, that he was illegally delaying the 
convocation of congress which ought to have met in 
July, 1828, and that he was of foreign birth. Almost 
simultaneously General La Fuente, who was encamped 
at Magdalena near Lima with a division of the army, 
obliged the vice president, Vista Florida, to resign, 
and proclaimed himself supreme chief. 

On the gth of June Lamar was put on board a small 
schooner called the "Mercedes" at Pa3Ata, in charge of 
General Pedro Bermudez and eight soldiers. They 
landed him at Punta Arenas in Central America. He 
traveled thence to San Jose de Costa Rica, where he 
died on October nth, 1830, aged fifty-two. In 1847 
his body was brought to Peru and interred in the 
Pantheon of Lima with great pomp, and in the same 
year his biography was published by Manuel Villaran. 
His portrait was hung in the museum at Lima. He 
was married to a lady of his own province of Quito, 
Dona Josefa Rocafuerte, sister of the accomplished 
president of Ecuador in 1835 — 39. 

General La Fuente assembled a congress at Lima 
on the 31st of August, 1829, and resigned the powers 
he had assumed. This assembly conferred the office 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 289 

of provisional president on Gamarra, with La Fuente 
as vice-president. It sat until the 20th of the follow- 
ing December, but no useful work was done. Peace 
was signed with Colombia in October. 



19 



CHAPTER XIII 

HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 
PRESIDENTS GAMARRA AND ORBEGOSO 1829-1835. 

Peru commenced her life of independence under 
every possible disadvantage. During the centuries of 
colonial rule, all important posts had been almost in- 
variably given to Spaniards, and no class in the colonies 
had been trained to high administrative or legislative 
work. Out of six hundred and seventy-two viceroys, 
captains-general and governors who had ruled in Spanish 
America since its discovery, only eighteen had been Amer- 
icans, and there had been one hundred and five native 
bishops out of seven hundred and six. The same sys- 
tem of exclusion existed in the appointments of judges 
of the audiences. The Peruvians had to commence 
their difficult task with a total absence of experience. 
The Spanish monopoly, which had excluded Peruvians 
from all intercourse with the rest of the world, had been 
still more injurious, and had thrown them back both as 
regards mental training and material prosperity. These 
disadvantages ought to receive due consideration in 
judging the shortcomings of the infant republic. Another 
misfortune was the preponderance of the military ele- 
ment. This was inevitable after the long struggle for 

independence, which gave rise to a readiness to appeal 

290 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 291 

to arms for the settlement of differences; while even an 
exaggerated feeling of gratitude to the rnen who had 
fought for freedom, and especially to the heroes of 
Ayacucho was natural. Time alone could cure these 
evils. The Peruvians have great natural abilities, and 
are quite capable of becoming citizens of a peaceful and 
prosperous state; but to have established such a com- 
monwealth in two or three generations would have been 
a miracle, when the disadvantages attending their birth 
as a free people are considered. Shallow and ignorant 
critics have demanded a miracle from the South Ameri- 
can republics. All that could be expected was a sensible, 
but necessarily slow advance toward better things; and 
this has certainly been secured. In the words of old 
General Miller, toward the close of his life, ''Every 
nation has its beginning, an inevitable and perhaps 
rough ordeal to undergo, and South America must not 
be expected to make a leap that no other country has 
been able to do." Mistakes, self-seeking, factious rebel- 
lion, and confusion will form part of the history of the 
young republic, but always accompanied by other and 
higher aspirations, and by a longing to secure the bless- 
ings of peace and progress. As the decades of years 
pass on it will be seen that the latter influences become 
stronger, and are more frequently in the ascendant. 

The boundaries of the South American republics 
were fixed, by a general agreement, in accordance with 
the uti possidetis of the colonies, in the year 18 10. Peru's 
limit to the north strikes the Pacific on the southern 
shore of the Gulf of Guayaquil, and the line separating 
the territory from that of the republic of Ecuador com- 
mences at Santa Rosa, and passes south, so as to give 
Peru the basin of the river Tumbez. It then turns east 
along the river Macara, a tributary of the Chira, to its 



292 A HISTORY OF PERU 

source in the cordillera. On the, eastern side it foUows 
the Canchis to its junction with the Chinchipe, and the 
whole basin of the Chinchipe is in Peruvian territor}^ to 
its junction with the Maranon. Further east Peru has 
claimed territory as far north as the right banks of the 
Napo and Putumayu, while Ecuador claims the river 
Maraiion as its boundary. The eastern boundar}^ of Peru 
follows the river Yavari from its mouth in the Maranon 
to its source. Further south the eastern limit was un- 
decided. By the Treaty of Ildefonso between Spain and 
Portugal in 1777, a commission was to have settled the 
boundar}'- on the spot. One commissioner went out and 
waited for the others during many years, but died of old 
age before the}^ arrived. The boundar}^ between Peru 
and Bolivia is the same line that divided the vicero3'al- 
ties of Peru and Buenos A3Tes. It crosses Lake Titicaca 
from Conima on the eastern shore, passing through the 
strait of Tiquina to the mouth of the Desaguadero: then 
passes along the summits of the cordillera to the source 
of the Loa which it follows to the sea, thus making 
Tarapaca a Peruvian province. 

The internal divisions of the country were arranged 
by General San Martin b}^ a decree dated February 21st, 
1 82 1. The Spanish Intendencias were to be called 
Departments, and the Partidos were to be Provinces. 
When orders were issued for the election of a Congress 
on April 26, 1822, eleven departments were enumerated. 

Guamanga (afterward called Ay- 

acucho.) 
Cuzco. 
Huancavelica. 



Lima. 

La Costa. 

Tarma (afterward called Junin.) 

Huaylas (afterward called An- 

cachs.) 
Truxillo (afterward called Lib- 

ertad.) 



Arequipa. 
Puno. 

MaynasyQuijos (afterward called 
Amazonas.) 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 293 

The departments are governed by prefects, and the 
Provinces by sub-prefects, both nominated by the 
executive. 

Agustin Gamarra complied with the condition of being 
a native of Peru. He was born at Cuzco, on the 27th 
of August, 1785, and was educated there at the College 
San Buenaventura. In 1809 he entered upon a military 
career in the Spanish army in Peru, and rose to the rank 
of lieutenant-colonel. He served under Goyeneche 
in Upper Peru, under Ramirez in the campaign against 
Pumacagua, and with the bloodthirsty miscreant Gon- 
zalez. But on two occasions he was suspended on 
suspicion of being inclined to favor the patriot cause. In 
1820 Colonel Gamarra came to Lima with Canterac, and 
soon afterward was appointed aide-de-camp to the 
viceroy Pezuela. But in January, 182 1, he left the 
Spaniards, and presented himself at the headquarters 
of the army of San Martin at Huaura. He served with 
Arenales in the march to Cerro Pasco, with Tristan at 
Macacona, and was made a general by the President 
Riva Aguero in 1823. Gamarra was second in command 
under Santa Cruz in Upper Peru, and chief of the staff 
at Ayacucho. Lamar, whom he superseded, raised him 
to the rank of grand-marshal. His wife Doiia Francisca 
Zubiaga, Dona Panchita as she was called, was a lad3^ of 
good family at Cuzco, most charming in society, and 
possessed of great force of character. 

The first term of office served by Gamarra was not a 
success. He loved his country, but his training had not 
fitted him for a post of such extreme difficulty. He 
knew of no way, save force, to solve a question in poli- 
tics. His acts were often unconstitutional and some- 
times tyrannical. On August 31st, 1829, he was inaugu- 
rated as President of Peru, with General La Fuente, a 



294 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

native of Tarapaca, as vice president. La Fuente was 
the officer who arrested Riva Aguero at Truxillo, in 
1823, and seized the government at Lima by displacing 
the Count of Vista Florida in 1829. He was married to 
Dona Mercedes Subiras, a lady of Lima possessed of 
considerable attractions. Gamarra was fully occupied 
during several months, in the work of organizing the 
public offices, and getting the machinery of government 
into serviceable order. But in August, 1830, a local 
disturbance broke out at Cuzco under Colonel Escobedo, 
with the object of establishing a federal form of govern- 
ment. Gamarra set out for Cuzco on the 6th of Septem- 
ber, leaving General La Fuente in charge of the execu- 
tive. 

When he arrived at the old capital of the Incas, the 
president found that the rebellion had already been sup- 
pressed. General Santa Cruz, the president of Bolivia, 
then invited him to a personal conference, and they were 
together for three days, in December, 1830, at the bridge 
over the Desaguadero. Negotiations were continued at 
Arequipa, and the result was the Treaty of Tiquina, 
signed on the 25th of August, 1831, which regulated the 
commercial relations between the two countries. 

In the president's absence a lady's revolution took 
place at Lima, which is almost unique of its kind. 
Supported by General Elespuru, the devoted friend of 
her husband and prefect of Lima, the vivacious and 
brilliant Dona Panchita assumed the right of acting for 
her husband in his absence. This gave umbrage both 
to Vice President La Fuente and to his wife. The mis- 
understanding culminated in an accusation that La 
Fuente was meditating a movement against General 
Gamarra. In the night of April i6th, 1831, some troops 
suddenly attacked the vice president's house. His wife 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 295 

detained the officer in conversation while La Fuente 
escaped along the roof. The soldiers then searched the 
house, and the officer, having climbed to the roof, was 
mistaken for the fugitive and shot by his own men. La 
Fuente escaped on board a ship in Callao bay, but the 
whole affair was kept so secret that when congress met 
on the 17th, its members were surprised at the absence 
of the vice president. His place was taken by Don 
Andres Reyes, president of the senate. 

This congress looked on passively at the scandalous 
deposition of the vice president by the prefect of Lima 
and Dona Panchita. It passed no useful law, and was 
dissolved in the following September. Gamarra re- 
turned to Lima, and his total want of appreciation of 
constitutional rights and guarantees rendered his govern- 
ment very unpopular. There were arbitrary increases of 
taxation, citizens were exiled without trial, and other 
acts were committed which showed a disregard for 
legality. Still there was no universal submission to this 
state of things. When the seventh congress met on 
the 29th of July, 1832, it was found there was a strong 
constitutional opposition, ready to maintain the law and 
to bring the government to account. 

In the disorders which accompanied the first years of 
the republic, when governments appealed to arms and 
disregarded legal guarantees, there was always a consti- 
tutional opposition, which became stronger as years 
rolled on, and it was in the influence and the traditions 
of this opposition that the hope of the country lay. In 
the congress of 1832 it made its voice heard, advocating 
the cause of law and rational liberty with no uncertain 
sound. One of the leaders of the opposition was Fran- 
cisco de Paula Gonzalez Vigil. Born at Tacna, in 1792, 
Vigil, like Luna Pizarro, was one of the favorite pupils 



296 A HISTORY OF PERU 

of the good Bishop Chaves de • la Rosa. He was a 
student of the college of San Geronimo, at Arequipa, 
from 1803 to 1812, and in 1818 he took orders. He had 
sat in the earlier congresses, supporting the opposition 
under the lead of Luna Pizarro, and in 1831 he became 
rector of his old college at Arequipa. Returned as 
deputy for Tacna, in the congress of 1832, this undaunted 
enemy of arbitrary rule, entered upon a course of deter- 
mined opposition to Gamarra. In an impassioned speech 
he recapitulated and denounced every illegal or arbitrary 
act of the administration, and concluded with an eloquent 
peroration: ''I have not hesitated to express my opinion 
from the tribune," he said, ''that my country may know- 
that when the executive has infringed the constitution 
there are deputies who are ready to protest. Among 
them I, the Deputy Vigil, have been impelled by my 
duty to deliver this impeachment. I am called upon to 
accuse. I accuse." On a division the government was 
beaten, and the congress was dissolved on the 22d of 
December, 1832. The last year of Gamarra's adminis- 
tration was darkened by several disturbances, the most 
serious of which was a military mutiny at Ayacucho, 
which was not suppressed without bloodshed. 

According to the law of 1828 a constituent convention 
was to meet in July, 1833, to revise the constitution, and 
the president's term of ofifice ended on the following 
20th of December. The convention met, and was com- 
posed of a large majority hostile to the government of 
Gamarra. The Marshal Riva Aguero, returned from 
exile, was a deputy. Manuel Telleria, the president of 
the senate, who had been banished, was another. The 
convention refused supplies until all citizens who had 
been arbitrarily arrested were released, and all exiles 
were restored to their homes. 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 297 

The end of Gamarra's term was approaching. If no 
new president was chosen, the vice president was 
charged by the law to assume the office provisionally, 
but La Fuente was in exile. In his absence the presi- 
dent of the senate took his place, but Telleria was also 
banished. Then came the vice president of the senate, 
Don Jos^ Braulio del Campo Redondo. The convention 
was called to revise the constitution, and was not em- 
powered to elect a president. There had been no popu- 
lar election, and the 20th of December was drawing 
near. The matter was so urgent that the convention 
resolved to proceed to an election. The candidate put 
forward by the retiring president was General Pedro 
Bermudez, a hero of Ayacucho. The more popular 
candidate was Don Luis Jose Orbegoso, a rich pro- 
prietor of Truxillo, a tall, handsome man of good repu- 
tation and noble lineage, but weak and easily led. A 
third candidate was Domingo Nieto, a brave and patri- 
otic young officer, native of Moquegua, who had served 
with distinction at Ayacucho. He was a devoted friend 
of Dr. Luna Pizarro, who loved him as a son. On the 
20th of December, when the convention met, eighty-four 
members were present. There were forty-seven votes 
for Orbegoso, thirty-six for Bermudez, and one for Nieto. 
The public accepted this result, although the election 
was unconstitutional. It was looked upon as the least 
among a choice of evils. Orbegoso was installed as 
president of Peru, receiving the bi-colored sash from 
the convention on December 30th, 1833. 

On the 4th of January, 1834, the ex-president Ga- 
marra proclaimed General Bermudez as provisional 
supreme chief of Peru, with the support of the Lima 
garrison. Two companies of infantry attacked the doors 
of the convention, which were defended by the sentry on 



298 A HISTORY OF PERU 

duty. He fought against overpowering odds until he 
was mortally wounded. His name was Juan Rios. His 
portrait was afterward hung in the guard room of the 
Sessions House of Congress. Orbegoso and the con- 
vention then took refuge in Callao Castle. 

General Bermudez declared that the election of a 
usurping congress was null and void. He promised that 
a congress should meet in a few months, and that the 
people should elect a president. Orbegoso and Bermu- 
dez were both in illegal positions, but the former had 
the public feeling with him; and the people began 
to arm for Orbegoso and the convention. Even the 
soldiers deserted from Gamarra in ominous numbers. 
On the night of January 28th, 1834, Gamarra, Bermu- 
dez and their followers evacuated Lima, and began their 
march to Xauxa. Next day Orbegoso entered the capi- 
tal in triumph. 

Troops were rapidly assembled to pursue Gamarra, 
under the command of General Miller, who was rein- 
forced by Colonel Salaverry on the 25th of March. 
Bermudez was posted at Ayacucho. General Nieto held 
Arequipa for the convention, and was threatened by 
San Roman. On the loth of March General Orbegoso 
followed Miller wath the rest of his army, leaving the 
government at Lima in charge of the Count of Vista 
Florida, with the title of supreme delegate. Orbegoso 
formed a junction with Miller at Huancavelica, on the 
i6th of April. He was accompanied by Marshal Riva 
Aguero, and Generals Necochea, La Fuente, and Valle 
Riestra. Here the news arrived that Nieto had been 
defeated by San Roman near Arequipa, and that Ga- 
marra had left Bermudez to join the victorious troops of 
San Roman. 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 299 

Miller took up a position in front of Huaylacucho, 
and a league from Huancavelica, in the very heart of the 
maritime cordillera. He was surrounded by lofty moun- 
tains on all sides, and the ground was broken and 
rugged. He had 1,150 men, besides five hundred under 
Salaverry, to support his left flank. Orbegoso remained 
in the village of Huaylacucho with his staff. At six in 
the morning of April 17th the enemy, under Frias, 
appeared on a height, a little beyond Miller's right 
flank. Miller wheeled and ordered an attack, but it was 
repulsed, a rout followed, the troops of Bermudez keep- 
ing up a heavy fire on the fugitives. Many were 
drowned in fording the river at Huaylacucho. Sala- 
verry rallied his men and, by protecting the retreat^ 
saved the army of Orbegoso from destruction. The 
dispersed troops were re-assembled at the farm of 
Acabambilla, and retreated to the valley of Xauxa, 
closely followed by Bermudez, who encamped at Huan- 
cayo. 

On April 22nd an officer presented himself at the 
camp of Orbegoso, and a rumor spread that the soldiers 
of Bermudez wished to recognize the authority of the 
president. Next day the army of Orbegoso encamped 
on the plain of Maquinhuayo, just outside the town of 
Xauxa. Then the news came that the troops of Bermu- 
dez had declared against sedition, and that Bermudez; 
had fled. General La Fuente was sent to receive their 
submission. It appeared that the moving spirit in 
bringing this settlement about was Colonel Jose Rufino 
Echenique, a native of Puno, destined, fifteen years 
afterward, to be president of the republic. At 11 
A. M. the arm)^ of Bermudez advanced to Maquinhua}^©. 
The troops of Orbegoso ran forward. They embraced 
each other. The event is known as the ''Embrace of 



300 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Maquinhuayo." A column was ordered to be erected, 
with the following inscription: "The love of countr}^ 
here united those who, on the same spot and at the 
same hour, were about to fight, and converted into a 
field of friendship that which would have been a field of 
blood." Echenique then retired into private life, man- 
aging the sugar estate of San Pedro, near Lima. A 
similar reconciliation took place between the forces of 
Nieto and San Roman in the south. Gamarra escaped 
into Bolivia, his wife, Dona Panchita, who was with 
him, leaving Arequipa in the disguise of a priest. 

Orbegoso returned to Lima and resumed his execu- 
tive duties on the 6th of Ma}^ Meanwhile the conven- 
tion completed its labors, and the short-lived constitu- 
tion of 1834 was promulgated. The convention was dis- 
solved on the nth of August. 

The disfavor with which the sedition of Bermudez was 
received by the people of Peru, and the embrace of 
Maquinhuayo were hopeful signs. The}^ proved that 
although, from want of training and experience, and 
from the ascendancy of personal motives, the successive 
governments might continue to resort to violent and 
illegal modes of gaining their ends, there was an under- 
current of sound sense, and an attachment to constitu- 
tional courses among all classes, which would gradual^ 
increase in force until it gained the ascendanc}^ 

Since the fall of Spanish power the church of Lima 
had been without a head. The venerable and pious Dr. 
Bartolome de las Heras, the last Spanish archbishop of 
Lima, had been expelled by General San Martin in 
1821. In a letter to Lord Cochrane the good old man 
stated his conviction that the independence of Peru was 
inevitable. He promised that he would represent this to 
the Spanish government and to the Holy See, and that 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 301 

he would do all in his power to conquer their obstinacy, 
to secure peace and to second the wishes of those 
people of Peru whom he had loved so well. He retired 
to Spain and died in 1823, aged eighty years. The see 
remained vacant for thirteen years. At last an agree- 
ment was arrived at with the pope, and Dr. Jorge de 
Benavente was installed as the first republican arch- 
bishop of Lima, on the 23rd of June, 1834. The bishop- 
ric of Cuzco remained vacant for some years longer, as 
the bishop, who was appointed under Spanish rule, 
retired into a religious house at Lima. Dr. Goyeneche, 
the bishop of Arequipa, was unaffected by political 
changes, and held the see uninterruptedly from 1818 to 
1859, when he was translated to Lima. At A3^acucho 
the see was vacant for eighteen years, owing to the war 
of independence. Truxillo was also vacant for many 
years, and the see was eventually filled, in 1836, by Dr. 
Tomas Dieguez de Florencia, an ardent liberal of the 
days of independence, and a deputy in the congress of 
1822. 

General La Fuente had returned from exile, and served 
in the campaign against Bermudez; but on his return to 
Lima, he was accused of conspiring against Orbegoso. 
Marshal Riva Aguero and the Count of Vista Florida 
were his enemies, for he had successfully conspired 
against one in 1823, and against the other in 1829. 
They were now influential, and La Fuente was sentenced 
to be banished to Costa Rica without trial. As consti- 
tutional Vice-President under Gamarra he was, from a 
strictly legal point of view, the only legitimate author- 
ity. Gamarra was also condemned to perpetual banish- 
ment, while Salaverry, for his services at Huaylacucho, 
was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. 

On November 9th, 1834, owing to disturbances in the 



302 A HISTORY OF PERU 

south, President Orbegoso left Lima at the head of an 
army and marched to Arequipa. The Count of Vista 
Florida, as vice president, remained in charge of the 
government at the capital. The president was no sooner 
gone than difficulties arose. The irrepressible General 
La Fuente came back to Callao, and demanded a trial. 
On the ist of January, 1835, the garrison of the castle 
declared in his favor. Salaverry was the inspector- 
general of the national guard. General Nieto advanced 
from Lima with a small force to suppress the mutiny at 
Callao, taking Salaverry as his chief of staff. The 
troops were posted at the village of Bella Vista, within 
a mile of the glacis of Callao Castle. At 10 a. m. of 
the 2nd of January, Salaverry approached the castle alone, 
to parley with the mutineers. He promised the ring- 
leader that he should not be punished if he surrendered 
immediately. The reply was a threat to shoot him, so 
he turned his horse's head and rode away, but stopped 
at a house in Callao, to ask for a glass of water. While 
he was drinking it, warning reached him that soldiers 
were coming out of the castle to seize him. He went 
off at full gallop to Bella Vista, called upon the troops 
to follow him, and made a rush for the open gate of the 
castle. This was done so quickly and audaciously that 
resistance was overcome, and the place was taken. This 
is the only time that Callao Castle has ever been taken 
by assault. The ringleaders were tried and shot. 

Tranquillity was restored, but it lasted for very few 
days. Salaverry remained in command of Callao Castle. 
At midnight on the 23rd of February, 1835, he rose at the 
head of the garrison, declaring that the government of 
Orbegoso had been no improvement on that of Gamarra, 
and that both were equally tainted with illegal arrests 
and banishments, and unjust exactions. The Count of 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 303 

Vista Florida offered the command of such troops as 
were in Lima to Generals Necochea and Vidal, but they 
declined to act, and Nieto had been shipped off to Pan- 
ama, by the insurgents. Vista Florida, therefore, fled 
to Xauxa; and a few minutes afterward General Sala- 
verry galloped into Lima. On February 25th, 1835, he 
proclaimed himself supreme chief of Peru. 

The life of this remarkable man is interesting as a 
type of Peruvian character. Eager and enthusiastic, 
full of life and fervor, impelled by generous and lofty 
motives, and clearly seeing what was right and what was 
best for his countr}^, in his calmer moments; he was 
hasty and quick-tempered, and was hurried into actions 
of which he soon repented. He was overpowered by 
personal ambition. He knew what was right, but his 
life was a series of actions against his better judgment. 
His career explains the history of his country for 
twenty years after the independence. It was a nation of 
Salaverrys. 



CHAPTER XIV 

HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 
THE CAREER OF SALAVERRY. 

Felipe Santiago de Salaverr}^, son of a father with the 
same name, and of Dona Micaela de Solar, was born at 
Lima on the 3rd of May, 1806. His father had been 
accountant-general of tobacco rents at Arequipa, and 
his maternal grandfather, Don Mariano de Solar, was 
superintendent of the revenue warehouses at Lima, in 
viceregal times. His father was a native of San Sebas- 
tian in Guipuzcoa. Salaverry was a Basque, born in 
Peru. He had one brother Mariano, two half-brothers 
Juan and Pablo, and a sister Narcisa. 

After receiving instruction at private schools, he was 
occupied in the study of Latin at the college of San Car- 
los for two years. He next went to San Fernando to 
work at mathematics. He passed a brilliant examination 
for his age; and the rector, Dr. Heredia, always spoke of 
his precocious talent with enthusiasm. The remarkable 
vivacity of young Salaverry was accompanied by a rich 
imagination; and in his boyhood he was vehement and 
passionate. One day he was at an upper window of the 
Augustine Convent, learning music with some compan- 
ions. The day was hot and a negro passed with some 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 305 

chirimoyas, a delicious fruit of the Anona genus only found 
in perfection in Peru. Salaverry lowered down a basket 
with two reals, and called to the man to fill it with two 
reals' worth. This was done, but the boy complained that 
the seller was not putting in the best. The negro gave 
a saucy answer, which the hot-headed student could not 
stand. Without thinking of the height, he jumped out 
of the window to thrash the fellow, and would have been 
killed if his companions had not caught him by the legs, 
and pulled him back. As it was, he was stunned for 
several hours by the blow on his head from the outer 
wall. 

The arrival of Lord Cochrane on the coast aroused the 
enthusiasm of the youths of Lima. Salaverry could no 
longer attend to his studies. On December 8th, 1820, 
this boy of fourteen and a half years presented himself at 
the camp of General San Martin as a volunteer. Many 
other schoolboys came with him, including his friend 
Juan Antonio Pezet, son of the liberal physician, and 
destined hereafter to be president of Peru. Young 
Vidal had preceded him by a year, having joined Lord 
Cochrane in i8ig. Salaverry was appointed a cadet, and 
from that time he was present at nearly every action in 
the war. He marched with Arenales to Cerro Pasco, 
served at the siege of Callao Castle, was at the battle of 
Torata under Miller, with Santa Cruz at the battle of 
Zepita, at Junin and Ayacucho. These were his services 
between the ages of fourteen and eighteen, when most 
boys are at school. "We must seek danger," he used 
to say to his companions, "and we shall soon be made 
officers." He served with Lamar at the battle of Portete 
de Tarqui, who promoted him to the rank of lieutenant- 
colonel. 

At the age of twenty-four he began to feel strongly the 



3o6 A HTSTORY OF PERU 

guilt of civil dissension, and the necessity that Peru had 
for repose. In 1832 he composed some lines on the sub- 
ject, which v/ere set to music and became popular. 

"Warriors of freedom! Champions of right! 
Sheathe your weapons and rest from your pains, 
No bayonet should glitter, no patriot should fight, 
Where glorious liberty reigns. 

"Turn your lances to plough-shares, your swords into spades, 

Let furrows appear on the land. 

Pray, when longing for glory and victory fades, 

That plenty may flow from your hand. 

"No honor is reaped in rebellious ways; 
No glory awaits civil strife. 
A soldier can only be worthy of praise. 
When for country he offers his life." 

Salaverry was deeply impressed with these views 
when he accepted an appointment from President 
Gamarra, and became sub-prefect of Tacna. There he 
met a lady of high spirit, and of congenial tastes and 
aspirations. He was married to Dona Juana Perez in 
July, 1832, and soon afterward returned to Lima. Dis- 
approving of the government of Gamarra, he wrote a 
strong protest against it. In March, 1833, he was 
arrested, and kept in prison until July, during which time 
he wrote "The Fatherland in Mourning." On July nth, 
he was put on board the frigate "Monteagudo," his 
young wife obtaining leave to share his exile. Landing 
at Huanchaco, the port of Truxillo, they were imme- 
diatety sent to the remote town of Chachapoyas, in the 
forest-covered valley of the Marafion, and thence to 
Huayaga, a wretched village about twenty miles from the 
banks of the river. 

Salaverry was not the man to rest quietly in such a 
place. A month had barely elapsed before he marched 
to Chachapoyas with a band of Indians, arrested the 
prefect, and began to drill and arm his men. But Gen- 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 307 

eral Raygada marched against him, he was taken 
prisoner, and brought to Caxamarca. Here the troops 
rose in his favor, and he marched to Truxillo at their 
head. Gamarra sent General Vidal against him, Lord 
Cochrane's gallant young volunteer. Salaverry and 
Vidal had been students together, as boys they fought 
through the war of independence with generous emula- 
tion, and now alas! as young men they were facing each 
other in civil strife. Salaverry came out of Truxillo to 
await his antagonist's approach at a place called Garita 
deMochi. On November 19th, 1833, Vidal, supported by 
Colonel Torrico, led his force of five hundred men against 
the insurgents. Both leaders displayed their accustomed 
gallantry, and the soldiers fought desperately. Twice 
the contest was renewed. The troops were decimated. 
Vidal had two horses shot under him. Salaverry, in a 
short blue cloak, fought like a subaltern, while he directed 
operations as a general. At length the combatants were 
worn out, and rested with a distance of only twenty yards 
between them. A wounded man cried out to Salaverry — 
''How long will you continue to shed blood?" He re- 
plied, ''Until only Vidal and I remain." A man levelled 
his musket at Salaverry, but Vidal made him lower it. 
Salaverry turned in his saddle and exclaimed: "Thanks! 
generous one." 

When the contest was renewed, there was a sudden 
charge on the flank of Salaverry's line, delivered by the 
troops under Torrico. The infantry broke. Salaverry 
put himself at the head of the cavalry and charged, but 
was repulsed. Vidal gained the victory. The battle 
had lasted five hours, from 7 until 11 a. m. There were 
six hundred killed and wounded. Next day Salaverry 
fled to Lambayeque, and Vidal entered Truxillo. The 
young rebel escaped from San Jose, the port of Lam- 



3o8 A HIS TOR Y OF PER U 

bayeque, to Payta in a balsa, and sought safety in the 
far north, at a farm called Sulpra in the Macara valley. 
Some troops arrived there, and the sergeant saw a man 
having his breakfast in a hut, in a baize jacket, torn 
cotton drawers, an old straw hat and bare feet. But he 
recognized Salaverry and took him prisoner. Gamarra 
had ordered him to be shot wherever he was found. 
Vidal spared his life, and allowed him to go on board a 
ship at Payta. 

Then there was a transformation scene. Salaverry 
persuaded the captain to land him at San Jose, the 
troops at L-ambayeque declared in his favor, Torrico 
and Vidal fled, and the proscribed outlaw entered Trux 
illo in triumph. Thence he marched, at the head of a 
division, to take part with Miller in the campaign against 
Bermudez, at the conclusion of which he became a 
general. 

Salaverry was twenty-eight years of age when he pro- 
claimed himself supreme chief. He was a very tall 
young man, six feet, two inches in height, slightly built, 
and with broad shoulders. His forehead was high and 
broad, and his eyes were gray and restless under two 
strongly marked brows. His face was pale, the features 
well cut, and nose slightly aquiline. He had a full, loud 
voice and was very active and vigorous. He had great 
facility of speech, quick intelligence, and both conceived 
and executed his plans with lightning speed. His usual 
dress at this time was a dark blue, single-breasted coat, 
with light blue collar and cuffs. 

Salaverry had been joined by Torrico, and as many 
other officers followed his example, the Count of Vista 
Florida gave up the contest, and returned to Lima as a 
private citizen. On the other hand General Valle 
Riestra landed at Pisco under the orders of Orbegoso, 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 309 

and issued a threatening proclamation, but his own men 
arrested him, and he was brought to Callao Castle as a 
prisoner. In an unlucky hour Salaverry received news 
that his two brothers had been shot, which afterward 
proved to be false. He had crushed his leg the day 
before, and was ill in bed. The news goaded him to 
fury, and he ordered Valle Riestra to be shot as a repri- 
sal. His wife entreated him to suspend the order, 
urging that Valle Riestra had a wife and children, and 
that the news might not be true. She was importunate, 
and at 3 a. m. he yielded, reversing the order for the 
execution of Valle Riestra. It was too late. The deed 
was done. It was fatal to Salaverry's cause. Sanguin- 
ary reprisals always bring ruin on those who resort to 
them. 

The first operation undertaken by Salaverry was to 
march against General Nieto in the north. He advanced 
to Caxamarca, thence to Truxillo, and made an extra- 
ordinarily rapid counter-march to Huaraz. But the 
troops of Nieto revolted against him, and declared for 
the new supreme chief, an example which was followed 
all over the country. He was recognized everywhere 
but at Arequipa, where Orbegoso remained. The fleet 
also gave in its adherence, consisting of the frigate 
'' Montegudo," the brigantine '' Arequipefio," and 
schooner '^ Peruviana." A congress was ordered to 
meet at Xauxa in October. Salaverry occupied himself 
zealously with administrative business. He re-organized 
the public offices, began the publication of the budget, 
and of all important orders, established an efficient sup- 
erintendence of the customs at Callao, opened the ports 
of Malabrigo, Chancay and Supe, created the new prov- 
ince of Chiclayo, and increased the funds of San Carlos 
college. 



3IO A HISTORY OF PERU 

But lowering clouds were gathering in the south, 
which were destined to overwhelm him. General Santa 
Cruz, the president of Bolivia, had conceived the idea 
oi uniting Peru and Bolivia in one confederation. When 
Gamarra escaped from Arequipa, Santa Cruz induced 
him to give in his adherence to this ambitious scheme. 
But he only intended to make use of the fugitive ex- 
president as a thorn in the side of Salaverry. The 
Bolivian president, however, supplied his guest with 
arms, and on the frontier he was met by Colonel Lopera 
with a body of troops, at the head of which he entered 
Cuzco on the 20th of May, 1835. All the time Santa 
Cruz was secretly negotiating with Orbegoso at Are- 
quipa, and signed a treaty with him on June 24th. 
Santa Cruz undertook to enter Peru with an army to 
restore order, while Orbegoso promised to convoke two 
assemblies in order to recognize a confederation consist- 
ing of three states. North Peru, South Peru, and Bolivia. 

When Gamarra found that he had been deceived, he 
was furious. He at once recognized the authority of 
Salaverry. Santa Cruz -entered Peruvian territory on 
the i6th of June, 1835, not waiting for the signature of 
the treaty with Orbegoso, and advanced rapidly toward 
Cuzco at the head of five thousand veterans. Lopera 
strongly advised Gamarra to retreat behind the Apuri- 
mac and form a junction with Salavery. But Gamarra 
resolved to give battle. Santa Cruz had encamped in 
the bottom of a small valley called Yupalca, surrounded 
by hills, about twenty miles south of Cuzco. Lopera 
led the way up a ravine leading to these hills, marching 
all night, until he reached the heights at the foot of 
which is the lake of Yanacocha; while Gamarra brought 
the rest of his troops to the banks of the lake. He had 
about 2,600 soldiers, and 8,000 Indians armed with 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 311 

sticks. It was 10 a. m. in the forenoon of the 13th of 
August, 1835. Santa Cruz began the battle by attack- 
ing Lopera, who resisted so successfully that he was 
soon able to take the offensive. But meanwhile General 
Bias Cerdena, the Canary Islander, who had been so 
severely wounded at the battle of Zepita, had routed 
the Peruvian's right and outflanked the centre. Lopera 
could not see the extent of the disaster at once, owing to 
the uneven ground, but suddenly his men turned and fled. 
The victory of Santa Cruz was complete by 2 p. m. There 
were five hundred killed, besides wounded. The Peru- 
vian officers Lopera, Elespuru, and Frisancho behaved 
with distinguished valor, but the battle of Yanacocha 
was hopelessly lost. Gamarra fled, and was so closely 
pursued by General Moran, that he could not stop until 
he reached Lima. 

Santa Cruz rapidly occupied Cuzco and Ayacucho. 
It became necessary for Salaverry to take the field. He 
had organized a small army at Bella Vista, consisting of 
six battalions of infantry, two squadrons of cavalry, 
a few field-pieces, and about 3,500 men. He was beloved 
by the men, and inspired the officers with his own 
enthusiasm. His chief of staff was Don Juan Pablo 
Fernandini, an officer who had joined San Martin when 
a student in Lima, and had commanded a company at 
Ayacucho. Tall, handsome, and courteous, Fernandini 
was respected for his ability and soldier-like qualities, 
and he had no enemies. The other members of the 
staff were Colonels Vivanco, Medina, and Plasencia. 
The fleet consisted of the corvette ''Libertad" (twenty- 
two guns) with the flag of Admiral Postigo, the brigan- 
tine '' Congreso " under Salcedo, the ''Arequipena " 
commanded by Mariategui, and the schooner ''Limena." 
Colonel Quiroga was sent by sea, with two hundred and 



312 HISTORY OF PERU 

sixty men, to capture Cobija, the only Bolivian port. 
The service was successfully performed, and he returned 
to Pisco in October. 

Salaverry made his headquarters at Yea, to study the 
movements of Santa Cruz and act according to circum- 
stances. At this time Gamarra arrived at Lima, in his 
flight from Yanacocha. There he tried to incite a revolt, 
was arrested in the act, and sent to Yea. Salaverry 
said: "Gamarra deserves death. But I know that if 
the country is lost, if I die, he is the only man capable 
of undertaking the delivery of Peru. " On October igth, 
1835, Gamarra was banished to Costa Rica. 

Santa Cruz had his headquarters at Cuzco, while 
General Moran with his vanguard of eight hundred men 
was at Huancavelica. Salaverry resolved to operate 
with the object of getting between Moran and his base 
at Cuzco. Late in October he set out over one of the 
wildest passes of the cordillera, between Yea and 
Ayacucho. After a wonderful march, in the height of 
the rainy season, Salaverry reached Ayacucho just two 
hours after Moran had left the town, in his retreat. Col- 
onel Deustua was sent in hot pursuit, with orders to cut 
off the enemy's retreat, if possible, at the gorge of the 
Pampas. He succeeded in attacking Moran's rear- 
guard, but the main body just had time to escape across 
the river. 

Salaverry, finding that the whole army of Santa Cruz 
was advancing from Cuzco, adopted another plan. He 
divided his army into three columns, all eventually unit- 
ing at Arequipa. Fernandini and Vivanco took the 
route over the mountains by Parinacochas to Vitor, 
Salaverry proceeded to the coast at Pisco, where he 
received reinforcements under Colonel Medina, while a 
small division, under Colonel Porras, was to remain in 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 313 

the Sierra to watch the movements of Santa Cruz, event- 
ually uniting with the rest. Salaverry paid a hurried 
visit to Lima, and then embarked at Pisco for Ocoiia, 
the port of Vitor, near Arequipa. 

Moran was ordered by Santa Cruz, to recross the 
Pampas, and fall upon the division of Porras, which 
retreated to Cangallo, closely followed. Provisions fail- 
ing, Porras surrendered on condition that his life and 
the lives of all those under his command should be 
spared. Santa Cruz ordered his execution, but General 
Moran declared he would retire from the army if such an 
act was perpetrated. The life of Porras was thus saved, 
and on the 25th of November, Santa Cruz reviewed his 
army at Ayacucho. 

General Salaverry formed a junction with Fernandini 
at Siguas, and was joined, a few days afterward, by the 
cavalry which had come by the coast deserts under Col- 
onel Mendiburu. Arequipa was evacuated by the Boli- 
vian troops under General Broun, who fell back on 
Moquegua, and on the 31st of December, Salaverry's 
army entered that city. 

Lima had fallen into a state of anarchy, after the 
departure of the supreme chief. He had unfortunately 
left the capital in charge of an incapable council, with 
Colonel Solar in command of the troops. The members 
of council abdicated their functions, and Solar retired 
into Callao Castle. The country around Lima was infested 
by gangs of mounted negro robbers, called montoneros, 
up to the very gates of the city, and one day a band of 
these ruffians, led by a negro named Leon got possession 
of Lima and began to sack the houses, until they were 
checked by one hundred and fifty foreigners landed from 
the ships in Callao Bay. On the 30th of December, 
General Vidal, who had risen against Salaverry at Hua- 



314 A HISTOR V OF PER U 

cho, entered Lima and restored order, and on the 8th of 
January, 1836, the President Orbegoso arrived, followed 
by General Moran, with six hundred men. Thus Sala- 
verry lost Lima on the day before he entered Arequipa. 
Solar surrendered Callao Castle on the 21st of January. 
Salaverry raised a forced contribution of $100,000 in 
Arequipa, made recruiting obligator}^, and obliged the 
artisans to work for the army. These measures made 
him unpopular. He encamped his forces at Challapam- 
pa, a mile to the north, and Colonel Mendiburu was 
made prefect of the city. Santa Cruz had ordered all 
his forces to concentrate at Puno. One division, under 
General Quiros, marched around the base of the Misti 
volcano, at the foot of which Arequipa is built. He was 
attacked in flank by Salaverry, but succeeded in his 
object of uniting with the main Bolivian forces, and 
even carried off some prisoners, including Colonel 
Vivanco and his company. The president of Bolivia 
had an army of 10,000 men in four divisions, com- 
manded respectively by Generals Anglada, Broun, 
O'Connor, and Ballivian." He marched to Arequipa, and 
entered the city at 10 a. m., on the 30th of January, 1836, 
Salavery evacuating it on his approach. The supreme 
chief had thrown up an entrenchment, mounted with 
two guns, at the head of the bridge which spans the 
river Chile. The Bolivian troops at once advanced to 
the bridge in pursuit, but were repulsed, and fire was 
kept up on both sides. General Cerdena began to throw 
up a breastwork of wool bales to protect his Bolivians, 
and to encourage them he advanced alone upon the 
bridge. He was struck by a bullet in the mouth, and 
was carried off the field, which ended the combat for 
that day. Next morning the fusilade was continued 
along the banks of the river Chile, but the losses were 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 315 

heavy, and Salaverry withdrew his army to the village of 
Uchumayu, twelve miles from the cit}^ 

The Campina of Arequipa is a green and fertile plain 
some thirty miles long by ten broad, surrounded by 
deserts. To the east the snowy peaks of the cordillera 
bound the view, the lofty peak of the Misti volcano, 
ig,ooo feet high, rising immediately above the city. 
The Campina is bounded on the south-west by an arid 
and rocky range of hills, called the cordillera of La Cal- 
dera. The rapid river Chile, issuing from the mountains 
on the north side of the volcano, passes along the north- 
west side of the city where it is spanned by the bridge, 
flows across the plain, and then skirts the Caldera range 
to Uchumayu. At the foot of these hills it is joined by 
another stream called Huasacachi, which also skirts the 
souch-west range. Situated at a height of 8,000 feet 
above the sea, the Campiiia of Arequipa enjoys a tem- 
perate climate. It is dotted with villages, and covered 
with fruit trees and fields of corn and lucerne. 

On the 4th of February, 1836, Salaverry occupied 
strong positions around Uchuma3'u, where the river is 
spanned by a bridge. Soon the Bolivians appeared on 
the surrounding heights, and General Ballivian advanced 
to carry the Uchumayu bridge. A heavy fire was opened 
upon his columns, and he was forced to retreat. General 
Santa Cruz then ordered Anglada to cross the river a 
league above the bridge, while the bridge itself was 
again assaulted. Salaverry forestalled this plan b}^ 
directing a night attack, under Colonel Cardenas, on the 
enemy in front whom he forced back. Hence when 
Anglada had completed his long march and attacked the 
rear of the Peruvians, he was easily repulsed. Thus 
ended the encounters of February 4th, which resulted 
in three successes for Salaverry, the enemy losing three 



3i6 A HISTORY OF PERU 

hundred and fifteen killed, and two hundred and eighty- 
four prisoners. 

At 8 A. M. of the 5th, Colonel Sagarnaga presented 
himself at the Peruvian camp for a parley on the part of 
Santa Cruz. He brought a proposal to regulate the 
proceedings of war and to spare prisoners. Salaverry 
agreed. He liberated two officers, asking for Vivanco 
in exchange. He declared that he had never wished to 
carry on a sanguinary war, and that if he had declared 
war to the knife at Lima, it was because General Santa 
Cruz had forced him to do so by his treatment of officers, 
after the battle of Yanacocha. In the afternoon Santa 
Cruz returned to Arequipa. 

Salaverry now determined to make a flank march by. 
LaCongata, Tingo Grande, and Socabaya, to the heights 
of Paucar-pata, with the object of cutting off the retreat 
of Santa Cruz, and depriving him of the means of com- 
municating with his base at Puno. The danger of this 
movement consisted in the necessity for passing around 
Arequipa in a semi-circle, while Santa Cruz could attack 
along a straight line at any point of the curve. The 
Peruvians now only numbered 1,893 nien; the enemy 
had about the same number, seven hundred being 
cavalry. The supreme chief began his march on Febru- 
ary 5th, passing the night at La Congata. At 2 a. m. of 
the 6th he marched to Tingo Grande, and at dawn on 
the 7th he continued this hazardous flank march. The 
news came to Santa Cruz on the 6th, and he gave orders 
for an attack on Salaverry's army; detaching a division, 
at the same time, to occupy the heights of Paucar-pata. 
The Bolivian army advanced with Ballivian on the left, 
Anglada on the right, and O'Connor in reserve. The 
Peruvians were crossing a country covered with tall 
maize crops, and traversed by many walls. There was 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 317 

a hill with three peaks, called ''Tres Tetas, " where the 
advanced column of Salaverry was posted when the 
battle began. In front was a small plain, approached 
by a slope called the ''Alto de la Luna." The Peruvian 
general pushed forward a detachment to occupy it, but 
the Bolivians were too quick for him, and opened fire as 
the Peruvian light column hurriedly came up. But two 
battalions of the Bolivians had been repulsed when 
Lagomarsino charged at the head of the hussars of 
Junin, dispersing the column led by Sagarnaga, and 
another in rear of it. The gallant Peruvian* lost half his 
men in this brilliant charge, and the success was counter- 
balanced by the dispersal of four Peruvian battalions 
among the maize fields. Then the Bolivian cavalry 
charged the dragoons of Callao and killed their com- 
mander, Zavala, while the forces of Santa Cruz ad- 
vanced along the whole line. By 11:30 a. m. the battle 
of Socabaya was fought, and the Bolivians were victori- 
ous, with a loss of two hundred and forty-two killed and 
one hundred and eighty-eight wounded. The Peruvians 
lost three hundred and fifty killed, and six hundred 
prisoners. 

The last charge was led by Salaverry in person, but 
he strove in vain to rally the fugitives. Santa Cruz had 
sent a small force under General Miller, to occupy the 
valleys of Vitor and Tambo on the coast, and so cut off 
the retreat of the Peruvians. On the 7th he took up a 
position with thirty-seven mounted men, at the head of 
the gorge of Guerreros, five miles from the port of Islay. 
The fugitive cavalry formed in the valley of Tambo and 
began a retreat northwards along the coast, under Col- 
onel Solar, who went to sleep in his saddle and was 
taken prisoner. The rest, consisting of ninety officers 
and two hundred men, approached Guerreros in a dense 



3i8 A HISTORY OF PERU 

morning mist. Suddenly a loud voice was heard shout- 
ing: "Do not advance! Do not advance! Here are 
enemies." It was Miller's voice, and Colonel Mendi- 
buru knew it, and approached until he was in the gen- 
eral's presence. He agreed to surrender the whole 
force, Miller promising that their lives should be spared, 
and that the officers should have a free pass to go away. 
Only Colonels Iguain and Coloma refused, and they 
escaped. Miller sent the rest to the olive grove of 
Catarindo where they slept, and were afterward taken 
to Arequipa. 

Salaverry, accompanied by Colonel Cardenas and two 
others, took another road to Islay, riding all day, and 
continually drinking from a water flask. When it was 
empty he was devoured by thirst. At length, after 
crossing the desert, they came to a little brook in the 
Tambo valley. The fallen chief dismounted, and drank 
out of the hollow of his hand. He rose, and putting his 
hand on the shoulder of one of his companions, his eyes 
filled with tears, and he exclaimed: '' Do you believe 
for a moment that the battle would have been lost if it 
had not been for the folly of this villain?" (meaning him- 
self). On the 9th he reached a hut within six miles of 
Islay. Miller heard of it, and sent to inform him of the 
convention with Colonel Mendiburu. Salaverr}^ and 
Cardenas surrendered under its terms. Admiral Postigo 
landed his men to rescue the supreme chief, but Sala- 
verr}^, rel3ang on the treaty with Miller, authorized the 
surrender of the fleet to Orbegoso at Callao. 

Salaverry was sent to Arequipa. His second in com- 
mand. General Fernandini, had been taken prisoner on 
the field of battle. Santa Cruz appointed a commission 
to try the prisoners, in accordance with a sanguinary 
decree of war to the death, issued in August, 1835. 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 319 

The prisoners claimed their lives under the convention 
with Miller, and also on the ground that the blood- 
thirsty decree had been superseded by the agreement at 
Uchumayu. Anglada, who presided, suspended the 
proceedings to consult Santa Cruz. That autho*-ity 
merely destroyed the written evidence, and ordered sen- 
tence of death to be pronounced. The name of the 
Bolivian Colonel, Baltazar Caravedo, deserves here to be 
recorded with honor. He was the solitary member of 
the court who refused to sign the sentence. For this 
noble conduct he was cashiered. 

On February i8th, 1836, Santa Cruz confirmed the 
sentences against the Supreme Chief Salaverr}^ Gen- 
eral Fernandini, Colonels Solar, Cardenas, Rivas, Car- 
rillo, Valdivia, Moya, and Picoaga. He committed the 
other prisoners to long terms of imprisonment. Four 
hours afterward the condemned officers were taken out 
into the great square of Arequipa and shot. The Bolivian 
troops surrounded the square, and behind them there was 
a dense crowd. Salaverry had made a solemn protest 
against these murders. He walked with a stick, being 
lame from a fall. He wore the uniform of the Peruvian 
Legion. He was in his thirtieth year. He left a will 
leaving all to his wife, and desiring to be buried in the 
Panteon of Lima. He also left a pathetic letter to his 
wife, entreating her to live on for their children, to edu- 
cate them to virtue, and to make known to them his 
unmerited death. At the time of the executions Santa 
Cruz was at dinner in a country house outside the town. 
They made the permanent success of his designs impos- 
sible. They revolted the feelings of all ranks. People 
recoiled from him as a man of blood. The country was 
against him, chough repressed and silent, and all the 
numerous friends of Salaverry and Gamarra, including 



320 A HISTORY OF PERU 

the best military talent in Peru," became his active and 
relentless enemies. 

General Miller reported that he had guaranteed the 
safety of their persons, and liberty to return to their 
homes, to all the prisoners. Santa Cruz replied that 
Miller had not done well in conceding such guarantees, 
and that he had no authority to do so. The general pro- 
tested, and did all in his power to save the lives of Sala- 
verry and his of]ficers, but in vain. 

The life of Salaverry was written by Manuel Bilbao. 
When he was preparing the second edition he consulted 
General Santa Cruz, who was then in exile at Versailles. 
It was too late, but Santa Cruz confessed his fault, 
and expressed regret for his treatment of Salaverry, 
Carlos Agosto Salaverry, the son of the supreme chief, 
became an accomplished man of letters, and one of the 
leading poets of Peru. 

It seemed well to throw the chapter on the career of 
Salaverry into the form of a biography because his life is 
typical, and is representative of the enthusiastic and 
generous youths of that disturbed period. With ample 
capacity for thought and the acquisition of knowledge, 
and with clear and correct judgments, when they gave 
themselves time for consideration, the Peruvians of that 
time allowed themselves to be carried away by ambitious 
impulses. The seizure of power by Salaverry was a 
sudden impulse, quite opposed to his own ideas and 
principles. The execution of Valle Riestra was a hasty 
act, contrary to his better feelings, to be bitterly, but 
vainly regretted immediately afterward. The other acts 
which composed his life story, need not have caused him 
the same remorseful feelings. They were generally gal- 
lant and generous, if seldom wise or judicious. The 
failings, not less than the fine qualities of the Peruvian 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 321 

youth, are typified in the history of the generous and 
enthusiastic victim of Santa Cruz. Among the best 
examples of gallantry and patriotic devotion, impelled 
by high and lofty aspirations and generous thoughts, 
Peru will always cherish the honored name of Felipe 
Santiago Salaverry. 



CHAPTER XV 

HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC THE PERU-BOLIVIAN CONFED- 
ERATION AND THE "restoration" UNDER GAMARRA 

The ambitious project of Santa Cruz was fated to 
receive a very brief trial, but it comprised a memor 
able period and he has left his mark on South Ameri- 
can history. 

His origin was mysterious. In the middle of the 
last century Don Cypriano Santa Cruz was living in a 
corner house, in the great square of Guamanga. His 
brother was dean of the cathedral. One night a bab}' 
was found in the doorway of Den Cypriano's house, and 
he benevolenth' adopted it, giving it the name of Jose 
Santa Cruz. The young Jose became a colonel of 
militia at Cuzco and eventually removed to La Paz. 
There he married the Indian Cacica Calaumana of 
Huarina, a lady of the blood royal of the Incas. 

Their son, Andres Santa Cruz, entered the Spanish 
army and had attained the rank of colonel when San 
Martin arrived on the coast of Peru. After the defeat 
of O'Reilly by General Arenales, Santa Cruz went 
over to the patriot side. He did good service at the 
battle of Pichincha, and commanded the unfortunate 
expedition to the south, when he fought the battle of 
Zepita. He was in charge of the executive at Lima 
for a short time, and was deeply mortified when he 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 323 

failed to secure sufficient votes, and his competitor, 
Lamar, was elected president of Peru in his place. He 
went on a mission to Chile, and soon afterward, when 
Sucre was expelled, he became president of Bolivia. 
For ten years he had revolved schemes of ambition in 
his mind, which were developed into a plan to form a 
Peru-Bolivian confederation with himself as its head. 
The battle of Socaba3^a enabled him to realize this plan, 
for Orbegoso was his tool, and all his opponents were 
dead or in exile. But the execution of Salaverr}' and 
his officers, showing the sanguinary character of the 
man, was a fatal blunder as well as a crime. 

The plan of Santa Cruz was to form three states. 
North Peru, South Peru, and Bolivia. Assemblies 
were convoked at Huaura for the north, and at Sicuani 
for the south, which decreed the formation of two sep- 
arate states. General Herrera being nominated presi- 
dent of South Peru, and Orbegoso of North Peru. 
Santa Cruz himself was proclaimed protector of the 
confederation. He made his public entry into Lima 
in August and the confederation was proclaimed on 
the 28th of October, 1836. 

Santa Cruz was afflicted with childish vanit}^ and 
was avaricious. He received the legion of honor from 
Louis Philippe, instituted a similar order for the con- 
federation, and his salar}^ was ^80,000 a year. His 
conduct at Arequipa shows him to have been of a cruel 
and sanguinar}^ disposition. But, with all his faults, 
he was , an able administrator,^and Peru flourished 
under his rule. He was very laborious and a friend of 
order, zealous to ensure purity in the public adminis- 
tration, and willing to listen to the advice of able or 
instructed men. Such men were Garcia del Rio, his 
minister of finance, and Jose Joaquin de Mora, the 



324 A HISTORY OF PERU 

editor of his interesting periodical "Eco del Protecto- 
rado. " The "Comercio," the oldest existing newspaper 
in Peru, was also commenced in 1839, under his rule. 
He was both an excellent organizer and administrator 
of civil affairs and an able conductor of the discipline 
and government of an army. As regards foreign affairs 
his policy was sincerely peaceful. The federal union 
of the three states was sanctioned on May ist, 1837, 
by a convention of delegates which met at Tacna. 
The protector, Santa Cruz, was a small man with the 
Indian type of features. He was well informed and 
accomplished, and possessed courteous and pleasing 
manners. 

The confederation found an implacable enemy in the 
Chilean government. Chile, which had been a colony 
and subordinate government of the viceroy during 
Spanish times, was also a financial drain on the re- 
sources of Peru. She had never paid her own way, 
and needed an annual Peruvian subsidy. Since the 
independence her productive powers had been devel- 
oped and her commerce had increased. But the mass 
of the people were too ignorant to make their voice 
heard, and political power had fallen into the hands 
of an oligarchy composed of a few leading families 
forming a party known as the "Pelucones. " There was 
a liberal party, but it was too small, and met with too 
little support to make its influence much felt. This 
state of parties has continued to the present day, varied 
by three sanguinary civil v/ars, and numerous less vio- 
lent attempts of the liberals to shake off the yoke of 
the "Pelucones. " 

The Chileans had expelled their liberator, O'Higgins, 
in 1823, who found an asylum in Peru. Some few lib- 
eral concessions were made in succeeding years, but 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 325 

this led to a violent "conservative reaction," and Diego 
Portales, the representative of the "Pelucones" became 
minister in 1830. His party had seized the govern- 
ment by force, broken faith, and persecuted all who 
were inclined to entertain liberal ideas. At length 
the liberals were driven to take up arms, and Gen- 
eral Freire, a hero of the independence, was their 
leader. The battle of Lircay was fought between Gen 
erals Freire and Prieto, the latter gained a complete 
victory, and 2,000 dead and wounded remained on the 
field. Freire fled to Peru. The "Pelucones, " as they 
were called, made Prieto their president, with Portales 
as his minister, in September, 1831. Their first step 
was to replace the ifberal constitution by a reactionary 
one which still continues in force. It gives the execu- 
tive such excessive powers that it is really only repub- 
lican in name. It was this oligarchy, led by Portales, 
which sought pretexts for a war with Peru. The 
leading Chilean families regarded with bitter jealousy 
the prosperity of a neighbor. 

The pretexts for war were that Arica had been made 
a free port, that advantages were given to vessels 
that had not touched at any place in Chile, and that 
General Freire had been allowed to buy two vessels 
in Peru. The commercial differences between the two 
countries did not supply the shadow of a cause for de- 
clarins; war. As regards the expedition of Freire, Gen- 
eral Santa Cruz did not even know of it, and he offered 
all the satisfaction in his power. Portales resolved to 
add treachery and national dishonor to injustice. He 
sent two vessels, the "Aquiles" and "Colocolo," to 
Callao under Victorino Garrido, and, in time of peace 
and in the dead of night, this Chilean officer treacher- 
ously seized the Peruvian fleet of three vessels, lying 



326 A HIS TOR Y OF PER U 

unarmed and unmanned, on the 21st of August, 1836. 
The Chilean historian, Vicuna Mackenna, has charac- 
terized the proceeding as "one of the most odious acts 
recorded in the annals of our republics." Having thus 
perfidiously deprived Peru of the means of defending 
her coasts, the Chilean government proceeded to de- 
clare war on the nth of November. The same his- 
torian says — "The war was not only unjust, but unjus- 
tifiable. " General Blanco Encalada sailed from Val- 
paraiso, in September, 1837, with eight men-of-war 
and twenty transports, and landed at Islay with 3,500 
men. On October 12th, he advanced to Arequipa. 
Here General Cerdeiia commanded the protector's 
army of 6,000 men, and with great skill and vigilance, 
he cut off all supplies from the Chileans. On the 17th 
of November, 1837, the treaty of Paucar-pata was 
signed by Blanco Encalada. The Chileans were al- 
lowed to depart on condition that the war 'was not re- 
newed, that the stolen men-of-war were restored, and 
that a treaty of commerce and reciprocity was signed, 
Blanco Encalada returned and resigned his command 
in December. 

The Chileans did not hesitate to increase the dis- 
honor of their country, by refusing to abide b}^ the 
treaty of Paucar-pata, and employing the men who had 
been released under its terms. They immediately be- 
gan preparations for renewing the contest. But this 
wanton and unjust war was very unpopular. Portales 
was reviewing some troops at Quillota, when a mutiny 
broke out, officers and men declaring in favor of lib- 
eral government and against an unnecessary foreign 
war. Portales was shot on the 6th of June, 1837, but 
the mutiny was suppressed, and preparations for a sec- 
ond expedition were pushed forward. In July, 1837, 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 327 

the Chilean Generals Bulnes and Cruz sailed from 
Valparaiso with 6,000 men. Then came the proof of 
the folly of Santa Cruz, in perpetrating the military 
murders at Arequipa. The Chilean invasion was the 
Nemesis of Salaverry. Unstained by that crime, all 
Peru would have rallied around Santa Cruz and there 
would have been an ignominious repetition of the 
Paucar-pata surrender. As it was the Chilean ships 
were crowded with Peruvian exiles, without whose aid 
the invaders had no chance of success. There were 
Gamarra, La Fuente, Torrico, San Roman, Castilla, 
Elespuru and many others. Santa Cruz was further 
embarrassed by the defection of President Orbegoso 
and General Nieto, who declared against him at Lima. 
But they were equally opposed to Gamarra and his 
Chileans. 

The Chilean force was landed at Ancon on the 6th 
of August, 1837, and marched upon Lima. The ad- 
vanced division was under La Fuente and Castilla, fol- 
lowed by troops under Torrico and Deustua. Gamarra 
commanded the reserve. Orbegoso and Nieto came 
out to meet their enemy, and fought an action at Por- 
tada de la Guia, but they were defeated and fled to 
Callao Castle Gamarra entered Lima and tried to 
persuade the Count of Vista Florida to assimie com- 
mand as president of a council of state. But he de- 
clined, and Gamarra was then proclaimed provisional 
president. Orbegoso embarked on board a small ves- 
sel, and retired to Guayaquil. A Peruvian force was 
raised at Lima under Torrico and Frisancho, and on 
September i8th Torrico marched up the valley of the 
Rimac to Matucana, and defeated five hundred Boli- 
vians. , 

On October 15th, the Chilean Bulnes was declared 



328 A HISTORY OF PFRU 

general-in-chief of the united armies, and Gamarra 
assumed the office of director-general of the war. On 
the approach of Santa Cruz the allies evacuated Lima 
and retreated up the coast to the Callejon de Hua3'las. 
The protector was incensed at the defection of Or- 
begoso. He appointed the grand marshal, Riva Agu- 
ero, to be president of the northern state in his place, 
and Don Pio Tristan to the southern state. On Novem- 
ber 9th, 1838, the Protector Santa Cruz entered Lima. 
But he could not make a long stay, for it was neces- 
sary to follow up the invaders with all possible speed. 
Peaching the long gorge of Huaylas, he attacked the 
rear guard of the allies at the bridge of Buin on Jan- 
uary 6th, 1839, but was repulsed. During the ensuing 
fortnight there was some maneuvering, but at last Santa 
Cruz posted his army on a hill near Yungay called the 
"Pan de Azucar. " The vanguard of the allies, com- 
manded b}' Torrico and Elespuru was composed of 
various Peruvian corps. The second line was led by 
Vidal, and the cavalry was under Castillac TI12 "Pan 
de Azucar" was attacked and carried b}^ battalions 
under Frisancho, Ugartec]}e, and Deustua. The allied 
loss amounted to two hundred and thirty killed, includ- 
ing General Elespuru, and four hundred and fifty-five 
wounded, but their victory was complete. The con- 
federation troops were routed and fled in all directions. 
The protector escaped to Arequipa, and embarking on 
board H. B. M. S. "Samarang" at Islay, he was taken 
to Guayaquil. Eventually Santa Cruz retired to Eu- 
rope, and lived at Versailles, where he was many years 
minister for Bolivia, and where he died in 1865. The 
following notables were banished from Peru, as sup- 
porters of the conferation: Grand Marshals Riva Agu- 
ero, Santa Cruz, Cerdefia, and Miller; Generals Pio 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 329 

and Domingo Tristan, Orbegoso, Otero, Pardo Zela, 
Moran, Necochea and twelve others ; Senor Garcia del 
Rio and seventeen other civilians. 

General Miller embarked on board H. M. S. "Sama- 
rang" with Santa Cruz on February 22nd, 1839, thus 
closing his militar}^ career. His name was expunged 
from the list of officers in the Peruvian army, without 
being heard or judged. His honorable career of twenty 
years, during which he had fought in almost every bat- 
tle of the war of independence, both in Chile and Peru, 
should have shielded him from injustice. In 1843 the 
British government appointed him consul-general to 
the Sandwich Islands, a post which he held for many 
years. In 1845 the decree against Miller and the other 
officers of the confederation was revoked as unjust. 
In 1859 he returned to Peru, and the congress rein- 
stated him on the army list of the republic on the day 
of the anniversary of A3^acucho. All his claims were 
acknowledged in a most handsome way, and without 
a dissentient voice. General Miller died on board H. 
B. M. S. "Naiad" in Callao Bay on th 31st of October, 
1861. His remains were interred in the cemetery of 
Bella Vista with all the honors which the Peruvian 
government could bestow. Citizens of Callao, where 
he had been governor and where he was much beloved, 
carried the coffin. In person General Miller was re- 
markably handsome and six feet high. He was pos- 
sessed of great military talent, and his bravery and 
powers were proved in a hundred engagements. He 
was a man of scrupulous integrity, and great warmth 
of heart. In society he was exceedingly agreeable, 
and there was a peculiarly gentle and winning expres- 
sion on his countenance when engaged in conversa- 
tion. While his body was being embalmed, two bul- 



330 A HISTORY OF PERU 

lets were found in it, and it was scarred with twenty- 
two wounds. General Miller's memoirs were published 
by his brother, both in English and Spanish. They 
contain the fullest and most interesting account of the 
war of independence in Chile and Peru. 

The confederation was doomed to failure from the 
first. Tainted with blood unjustly shed at the outset, 
and with more than half the ablest soldiers and states- 
men of the country activel}^ plotting against it, the 
plan could not have a fair trial. With a purer origin, 
and under happier auspices it is possible that it might 
have succeeded, but on the whole the two republics 
will do better to work out their respective destinies as 
independent, though friendly neighbors. The battle 
of Yungay effectually destroyed a fabric which had been 
built up with such painful care and at the price of so 
much bloodshed. The Chileans departed well pleased 
at their work of destruction. Santa Cruz had himself 
dissolved the confederation before going into exile, by 
a decree dated February 20th, 1839. Gamarra, now 
provisional president, entered Lima on the 24th, and 
Callao Castle was surrendered to him on the 8th of 
March. General Velasco, a friend of Santa Cruz, be- 
came president of Bolivia in 1839. 

A congress was convoked to assemble at the little 
town of Huancayo, in the valley of Xauxa, being elected 
according to the law of the constitution of 1834. It 
met on the 15th of August, 1839, and declared Gamarra 
to be constitutional president of Peru, with the title 
of Restorer. All the acts of assemblies which met 
during the confederation were declared to be null and 
void, and the very liberal constitution of 1834 was also 
annulled. Out of the sixty-two deputies assembled 
at Huancayo, sixty voted for its abolition. It had only 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 331 

two defenders, Dr. Navarrete, a judge of the superior 
court of Lima, and Dr. Alvarez, a learned lawyer of 
Ayacucho. Both protested against that increase of 
the power of the executive, and that lowering of the 
judicial power which forms the main difference between 
the constitutions of 1834 and 1839. 

The constitution elaborated by the congress of Hu- 
ancayo was proclaimed on November loth, 1839. The 
congress was to be composed of a senate and chamber 
of deputies, a third of the deputies beinc, renewed 
every two years and half the senate every four years. 
Deputies were elected by colleges, one for every 30,000 
souls, and for ever}^ two deputies, a substitute was 
elected. The senate was composed of twent3'-one cit- 
izens elected by the departments from among residents. 
The congress was to meet every two years. The pres- 
ident was elected for six years, another six years elaps- 
ing before he could be re-elected. There was to be: 
a council of state consisting of fifteen members, elected- 
by the congress, the president and vice-president of 
which were elected by the congress each session. On 
a vacancy of the presidency, the president of the coun- 
cil of state was to succeed, and to convoke the. col- 
leges for a new election. The supreme court of justice 
was a court of appeal at Lima, composed of seven 
vocales and a fiscal, named from a double number pre- 
sented by the council of state to the executive. 

There was a superior court of justice in the capital 
of each department, a judge in each province, and 
justices of the peace in each district. Each depart- 
ment is governed by a prefect, and each province by 
a sub-prefect nominated by the president, under whom 
there were local governors of districts. All Peruvians 
were equal before the law, no slave could be born in 



332 A HISTORY OF PERU 

the country, there was to be complete liberty of the 
press, gratuitous primary instruction was guaranteed, 
and prisons were to be places of detention, not of pun- 
ishment. 

The constituent congress of Huancayo was dissolved 
on July nth, 1840, and six months afterward an insur- 
rection broke out in the south, headed by Colonel 
Manuel Ignacio Vivanco. This young native of Lima 
was the last Peruvian public man of the type of his 
friend Salaverry. Gifted with remarkable talent, highly 
accomplished, and with most ingratiating manners, 
Vivanco was more fitted to shine as a diplomatist 
than as a soldier. His adherents, Colonel Valentino 
Boza and Colonel Juan Balta declared for him at Cuzco 
and Puno, and Vivanco issued his justification at 
Arequipa. He declared that Gamarra had obtained 
power by the aid of foreign bayonets, that he had be- 
trayed the liberal constitution of 1834 with the assist- 
ance of an assembly deliberating under foreign influ- 
ence, that this was in defiance of the law providing for 
the reform of the constitution, and that his government 
was consequently a usurping government and incapa- 
ble of securing the happiness of the people. Vivanco 
further declared that Gamarra had ceased to rule, and 
solemnly accepted the office of supreme chief on the 
4th of January, 1841, with the title of "Regenerator." 

General Castilla received the chief command against 
the insurgents, assisted by General San Roman, and 
the}^ recovered Cuzco ; while La Fuente was sent to 
Islay. In March the president himself embarked at 
Callao, leaving Don Manuel Menendez, the president of 
the council of state, in charge of the executive. On the 
25th the regenerator obtained an unimportant success 
over Castilla at Cachamarca, and returned in triumph 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 333 

to Areqiiipa, leaving two officers named Ugarteche and 
Lopez to follow his opponents. The two forces met 
at a place called Cuevillas, where the troops of the 
regenerator were utterl}^ routed, and on the 5th of 
April, Castilla entered Arequipa. Vivanco fled to Bo- 
livia, and the "regeneration" came to an end after a 
brief existence of three months. The president made 
Castilla prefect and superior chief of the southern 
departments, and returned to Lima, wdiere his restless 
spirit led him on to his last fatal campaign. 

General Santa Cruz had remained at Gua3^aquil en- 
g;aged in conducting various intrigues in Bolivia with 
a view to the recovery of that high station which he 
had lostj but was never destined to regain. Gamarra 
viewed these proceedings, the importance of which 
were exaggerated, with anno3'ance and probabl}^ real 
alarm. He had never in his life had an}^ notion of 
gaining his ends by an}^ means but force. He, there- 
fore, sought and obtained the sanction of the council 
of state to make war upon Bolivia, with the object of 
expelling the adherents of Santa Cruz. War v.as de- 
clared on Jul}'' 6th, 1841. Don Manuel Menendez was 
again left in charge of the executive at Lima, and 
General La Fuente received command of an army of 
observation in the north. The president then marched, 
by wa}^ of A^-acucho and Cuzco, to the Bolivian frontier. 
Velasco, the friend of Santa Cruz, resigned in favor 
of General Ballivian, who became president of Boli- 
via. The new president sent to Gamarra, objecting 
to any futher advance of the Peruvian army into Bo- 
livia, seeing that there was no longer an}^ party in 
favor of Santa Cruz. The Peruvian president haught- 
ily replied that Ballivian was himself a partisan of 
Santa Cruz, and that consequently the advance of the 



334 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

Peruvian army would be continued. On the 24th of 
October, General San Roman gained a success at Me- 
capaca, routing some of the best regiments of the Bo- 
livian army. But less than a month afterward the 
fatal battle of Yngavi was fought. The name of the 
place was Incague, but the Bolivians changed it to 
Yngavi, which is an anagram of Yunga}^ The Peru- 
vians were entirely defeated, Gamarra himself was 
killed, and great numbers of Peruvian officers were 
taken prisoners and sent to Oruro and Santa Cruz de 
la Sierra. San Roman escaped to Peru. The date of 
this disaster was the 20th of November, 1841. 

x'Vgustin Gamarra was fifty-six years of age at the 
time of his death. As a young man, in the Spanish 
army, he was honorably distinguished for repeated 
efforts to mitigate the fate of his insurgent countr\^- 
men. He fought gallantly for his country throughout 
the war of independence. He properly put a stop to 
Lamar's fratricidal war with Colombia. But his own 
first term of office was a failure, and his factious con- 
duct at the end of it was inexcusable. His earl}^ train- 
ing rendered him incapable of comprehending the 
duties of a public servant under a free government. 
His proceedings, which led to the battleof Yanacocha, 
are very questionable, and his complicity with the 
Chilean invasion was unpatriotic. The constitution of 
Huanca^^o was a retrograde step, and the war with 
Bolivia was unjustifiable. Yet, with all his faults, 
Gamarra loved his country, and sought its welfare ac- 
cording to his lights. He attached to himself many 
loyal and devoted friends who continued to revere his 
memory. He had a wife who passionately loved him, 
and she was a woman of high courage, great ability, and 
refinement. Gamarra had received the news of his 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 335 

wife's death when he was at Lima after the battle of 
Yanacocha, in October, 1835, surviving her for seven 
years. In August, 1845, a decree of congress declared 
that Gamarra had deserved well of his country, and 
that his name should be respected. His remains 
were conveyed from Bolivia, in 1849, and brought to 
Lima with great solemnity. A mausoleum to his mem- 
ory was erected in the Panteon, in accordance with a 
law of December 21st, 1849. 

Ballivian, elated by his victory at Yngavi, invaded 
Peru. The whole country flew to arms. The men of 
Puno promptly offered resistance, and routed the in- 
vaders in several partial encounters. General San 
Roman organized troops at Cuzco, Nieto at Arequipa, 
Torrico was named commander-in-chief in the north, 
and La Fuente in the south. Castilla was a prisoner of 
war in Bolivia. Meanwhile the Peruvian diplomatists 
Mariategui and Lavalle negotiated a peace between 
Peru and Bolivia which was signed at Acora on the 
7th of June, 1842. 

Don Manuel Menendez, on the death of President 
Gamarra, became, by the constitution, the acting pres- 
ident of the republic. But the generals in command 
of forces assembled to defend the country, took a most 
erroneous view of their duties. Brought up in the 
school of Gamarra, they formed plans of their own in- 
stead of loyally obeying the constitutional authority, 
and as those plans were antagonist, collisions became 
inevitable to the detriment of their common country. 
For, Castilla being a prisoner, they were all about 
equal in mediocrit}^ and there was no one of leading 
talent and ability. La Fuente set the example of tur- 
bulence, and President Menendez issued a decree for- 
bidding all aid or obedience to him. In reply La 



336 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Fuente and Vivanco refused to recognize Menendez, 
and on Jul}' 28th declared General Francisco Vidal, 
who was vice president of the council of state, to be 
head of the state. Meanwhile General Torrico, adopt- 
ing a still more factious course, marched to Lima, de- 
posed Menendez, and declared himself supreme chief. 
He was joined by General San Roman. 

Civil war prevailed over the country. Colonel Lo- 
pera was sent from Lima by Torrico, and encountered 
the forces of Vidal at Incahuasi in the valley of Xauxa, 
commanded b}^ General Zubiaga, the accomplished 
brother-in-law of Gamarra. In the encounter which 
ensued on the 26th of September, Zubiaga was mor- 
tall}^ wounded, leaving a 5'oung wife and a 3^et unborn 
son at A3^acucho to mourn his loss. 

Vidal and La Fuente marched down to the coast from 
Ayacucho, and encountered the troops of Torrico and 
San Roman on the 17th of October at a place called 
Agua Santa, in the fields of La Yesera de Caucato, 
near Pisco. After a hard fight Torrico and San Roman 
fled, and Vidal entered "Lima, promoting Vivanco to 
the rank of general. 

The gallant Vidal, Lord Cochrane's young volunteer 
of 1819, was an ardent patriot, but no politician. He, 
at least, was disinterested in the midst of this scram- 
ble for power, and he felt grave doubts of the legality 
of his position. When Vivanco rebelled against him 
at Arequipa, followed by Colonel Pezet at Ayacucho, 
General Vidal patriotically resolved to sacrifice his 
own interests, and to prevent further civil war by re- 
signing his post. He, therefore, handed over charge 
of the executive to Don Justo Figuerola, the second 
vice president of the council ; Menendez having left 
Lima. Five days afterward Figuerola was deposed by 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 337 

Colonel Aramburu, who declared in favor of Vivanco. 
The former "Regenerator" marched to the capital, by 
way of Ayacucho, declaring that he would assemble a 
congress and re-establish the reign of law. He entered 
Lima on the 8th of April, 1843, while his fascinating 
and accomplished wife, Dona Cipriana Latorre, secured 
Arequipa. Vivanco was proclaimed supreme director 
of Peru. He did not fulfill his promise to convoke a 
congress. He nominated his own council of state, 
made new laws of his own, and committed other un- 
constitutional acts. 

This confusion was the natural consequence of the 
sudden death of the head of the state, and of the exis- 
tence in the country of several generals at the head 
of troops, brought up in Gamarra's school, which taught 
that force was the only remedy, and without any leader 
of preponderating influence or talent. The only hope 
of the country was in a man with such power and force 
of will as would enable him to put an end to the con- 
fusion and not only restore, but maintain the reign of 
law and order. Peru found such a man in her great 
and urgent need, in Ramon Castilla. 

The first twenty years of the republic had passed 
away. In narrating the history of the executive gov- 
ernment the course of events appears to be a succession 
of civil conflicts. Such events certainly crowd upon 
the scene, and they retarded the progress, and arrested 
the prosperity of the country. Experience was being 
acquired, an inevitable ordeal had to be undergone, 
and in spite of all drawbacks useful lessons were being 
learned, and steady, though slow progress was being 
made. The proof of this is that in the second twenty 
years there was a decided improvement. 



CHAPTER XVI 

HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC PRESIDENT RAMON CASTILLA 

The gorge of Tarapaca, in the far southern part of 
the coast region of Peru, commences in the cordillera, 
with the frowning volcano of Isluga, 17,000 feet above 
the sea, rising up on its northern side, and the mighty 
peak of Lirima to the south. A stream flows down 
the ravine which is lost when it reaches the desert, 
and when there are thunder storms in the mountains 
great floods, called avejiidas, carry destruction down 
the valley. There are green lucerne fields on each 
side of the stream, and a few hamlets along its course. 
The town of Tarapaca isfar down the stream and not 
far from the desert. It consists of a few mud houses, 
and a small square with an old church much shaken by 
earthquakes. There are fig trees and willows around 
the little town, and a few fields of lucerne, but the val- 
ley is on]}^ six hundred 3'ards wide, the steep sides of 
the ravine rising up abruptly, with nothing but arid 
deserts to be seen on reaching the ridge, stretching 
away on one side to the horizon, and on the other to 
the foot of the cordillera. On the 30th of August, 
1796, Ramon Castilla was born in this little town of 
Tarapaca. His father Pedro was a son of Don Pedro 

Pablo Castilla, a native of Santillana in the Asturias, 

338 




Don Ramon Castilla. 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 339 

who went out with a government appointment to 
Buenos Ayres. The son Pedro came to Tarapaca on 
a mining speculation and married Francisca, daughter 
of Juan Bautista Marquesado of Genoa by Magdalena 
Romero, an Indian girl of Tarapaca. It is said that 
Pedro Castilla worked the refuse silver ores of the 
mine of El Carmen, and that he was the discoverer 
of the class of ores called lecheador (chloro-bromide of 
silver). There is a tradition that little Ramon was 
his father's woodcutter, toiling over the desert to col- 
lect branches from the scattered clumps of carob trees. 
If so it must have been when he was very young. 

At the age of fifteen Ramon Castilla was taken to 
Lima by his elder brother Leandro, and thence to 
Concepcion in Chile. There he joined the Spanish 
army as a cadet, and was taken prisoner after the battle 
of Chacabuco and sent to Buenos Ayres. He was re- 
leased by president Puyrredon at Buenos Ayres, and 
went by sea to Rio de Janeiro. From Brazil young 
Castilla, then only nineteen, made a very remarkable 
journey, and reached his own country after encounter- 
ing many hardships and dangers. In 1821, with many 
other young Peruvians, he went to the camp of San 
Martin, and obtained a commission in the patriot army. 
He was a colonel, on the stafl of General Sucre, at 
the battle of Ayacucho, and was twice wounded. When 
independence was secured, Castilla was rewarded for 
his services, with the appointment of prefect of his 
native province of Tarapaca in 1824. Following the 
fortunes of Gamarra, he commanded the Peruvian cav- 
alry at the battle of Yungay, suppressed Vivanco's re- 
bellion at Cuevillas, and was taken prisoner on the 
fatal field of Ingavi. Castilla was married to a stately 



340 A HISTORY OF PERU 

and talented lady of Arequipa, of the respectable fam- 
ily of Canseco. 

When General Castilla was released from his Boli- 
vian captivity, he found his native country in a deplor- 
able state, torn by the factions of contending generals. 
Castilla, according to his lights, always maintained 
what he believed to be the cause of constitutional law 
and order. The cause he upheld succeeded through his 
own fearless audacity and force of will. He now con- 
ceived it to be his duty to restore Don Manuel Menen- 
dez to his legal position as acting president of the re- 
public, and he resolved to do his duty in spite of the 
odds against him, and in defiance of all obstacles. 

Ramon Castilla was a small, spare man with an iron 
constitution and great powers of endurance. His bright, 
fierce little eyes, with thick overhanging brows, stiff 
bristly moustaches and somewhat projecting under lip 
gave his countenance a menacing expression. But he 
had a resolute look and an air of command which was 
certainly dignified. He was an excellent soldier, brave 
as a lion, prompt in action, and beloved by his men. 
His political management almost amounted to genius, 
while his victories were never stained by cruelt}', and 
his antagonists were seldom proscribed for any length 
of time, generally pardoned at once, and often, if men 
of ability, raised to posts of importance in the service 
of the republic. His nature was masterful, impatient 
of opposition, but generous and forgiving. His re- 
sistless energy and force of will were the qualities 
which raised him above his contemporaries. 

General Castilla commenced his enterprise b}^ land- 
ing at Arica with five men. He walked across the 
square and was fired upon from the side streets. He 
entered the barrack yard in the hope that the soldiers 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 341 

would join his cause, but they also fired upon him. 
Undaunted by this reverse, and with two bullets 
through his coat, he cooll}' walked across the square 
again, mounted a horse and rode out of the town with 
his five men, who had stood by him. They grew to fifty, 
then to two hundred. General Nieto had agreed to 
work with him, and got possession of Cuzco, as leader 
of the constitutional party. 

Mvanco sent his friend General Guarda in pursuit of 
Castilla and they met at a place called San Antonio 
near a small stream, on the 2Sth of October, 1843. On 
one bank were two hundred raw recruits, on the other 
a superior force of disciplined and well armed soldiers. 
Castilla rode across to the hostile army, quite alone, 
and entering the tent of Guarda, he proposed a cap- 
itulation. He was dissembling. Guarda readil}^ agreed 
and they shook hands. "By the bye," said Castilla, 
"your men must be tired and thirst}', let them pile 
arms and go down to the rivulet and drink." He him- 
self coolh' went out of the tent and gave the order 
himself in the most natural way in the world, which 
was at once obeved. He then made a preconcerted 
sign for his own men to advance at the double, and 
re-entered the tent. Fiercely curling up his moustache, 
he said to the astonished General Guarda, "You are 
my prisoner I" The disarmed men b\' the rivulet were 
easily overpowered, and most of them joined Castilla's 
ranks. 

The supreme director, Vivanco, became alarmed, and 
leaving the executiive in charge of the prefect, Don 
Domingo Elias, he made a long and painful march to 
Arequipa. Reverses were following each other thickly 
in his path. Colonel Echenique, the hero of the em- 
brace of ]\Iaquinhuayo, declared against him at Xuaxa ; 



342 A HISTORY OF PERU 

and Don Domingo Elias at Lima. At this time Gen- 
eral Nieto died vcr}^ suddenl}^ at Cuzco, and Castilla 
became head of the constitutional party. Vivanco was 
at Arequipa ; and Castilla, with San Roman and Cis- 
neros, advanced across the desert to attack him ; al- 
though he was reduced to extremities for want of pro- 
visions. It was the intention of Vivanco to avoid an 
engagement, but it was brought on by Colonel Lopera 
on the 17th of JuJy, 1844, at a place called Carmen 
Alto, near the banks of the river Chile. The arm}^ of 
the supreme director was hopelessly defeated. He 
had watched the combat from an adjacent church tow^er, 
and when he saw the result he galloped off to Islay, 
and retired to Chile. Castilla proclaimed a general 
amnesty for all political and militar}^ offences. 

Don Manuel Menendez was restored to his post as 
acting-president, and on August loth, 1844, he convoked 
a congress for the election of a constitutional president 
of the republic, for a period of six years. The con- 
gress met on the i6th of April, 1845, and on the 20th 
Grand Marshal Don Ramon Castilla w^as elected Pres- 
ident of Peru. This was the tenth congress, and it 
was dissolved on the 22nd of October. A durable 
peace was established, chiefly because there were no 
proscriptions. The decree banishing the officers of the 
confederation was revoked as unjust in 1845, and another 
law restored them to their rights in 1847. 

The blessings of peace and security conferred on the 
country by Castilla soon began to be felt. Commerce 
throve, and numerous enterprises were undertaken. In 
1840 Mr. Wheelwright had commenced a service of 
mail steamers between Callao and Valparaiso, and in a 
few 3^ears the company had increased the number of 
steamers, and extended the line to Panama. An electric 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 343 

telegraph was constructed between Callao and Lima in 
1847, and a railroad was opened between the port and 
the capital in 1851. Castilla introduced steamers into 
the navy, and in his time it consisted of the screw cor- 
vette "Amazonas" armed with two sixty-eight, and four 
twenty-four pounders, the paddle steamer "Rimac, " 
brigs "Gamarra" and "i\lmirante Guise," and schooner 
Limena. " 

The remarkable source of Peruvian wealth derived 
from the guano on the desert islands off the coast, and 
the nitrate in the deserts of Tarapaca was fully devel- 
oped during the long peace established by Castilla. 
The use of bird manure was well known to the Incas, 
and was resorted to by the agriculturists of the coast 
valleys. It was the demand for this precious fertilizer 
from Europe which temporarily raised the Peruvian 
finances to such a prosperous condition. It was found 
that the three Cliincha Islands, in the baj^ of Pisco, 
had on them a total of 12,376,100 tons of excellent 
guano. Hundreds of ships annually went there to re- 
ceive guano, and about 400,000 tons were taken away 
each year ; the monopoly bringing in an annual reve- 
nue to the state of 114,850,000. 

The nitrate of Tarapaca is a still more extraordinar}^ 
source of wealth. It is found in the ravines of the hill 
range intervening between the sea coast and the great 
desert, called the Tamarugal, which extends to the foot 
ol the Cordillera. The nitrate is found in inexhaustible 
quantities, and was used by the Spaniards in the man- 
ufacture of gunpowder. The present nitrate trade was 
founded by a young Frenchman settled at Tacna named 
Hector Bacque. He formed some nitrate works at La 
Noria in 1826, and his example was followed by Zav- 
ala, Smith. Gildemeister, and others, until nitrate be- 



344 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

came a great and important branch of Peruvian com- 
nierce ; employing thousands of tons of shipping, and 
giving work to many thousands of hands. In Castilla's 
time the export amounted to over 1,000,000 tons, and 
was another valuable source of revenue. 

This financial prosperity enabled Castilla to com- 
mence the payment of the interest of the national 
debt. The Peruvian government contracted a loan in 
London of ^1,200,000 in 1822, and another of ;^6oo,- 
000 in 1825, at six per cent. As no interest had 
been paid, the accumulated interest amounted to ^2,- 
027,118: making a total debt of ^3,843,118. Senor 
Osma, who was employed to negotiate with the bond 
holders, arranged to issue new bonds at four per cent, 
the rate to increase annually one-half per cent to six 
percent, and arrears of interest to be capitalized. The 
interest of the foreign debt was regularly paid from 
1849 until 1876. The foreign debt was annually re- 
duced by means of a sinking fund. Castilla also took 
steps to consolidate the internal debt of the country. 
He was careful only to admit real claims properly at- 
tested, and none were to be received after July, 1852, 
When he resigned the internal debt amounted to $4,- 
320,400. 

A congress was sitting from August, 1847, to March, 
1848, and another from June, 1849, to March, 1850. 
They both did some useful work, and the latter passed 
a measure for the consolidation of the internal debt. 

The riches derived from the guano and nitrate gave 
rise . to great prosperity. Public works were under- 
taken, the naval and military services were well and 
punctually paid, pensions were multiplied, and fort- 
unes were made. But these temporary sources of in- 
come were in reality the curse of the country. At the 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLTC 345 

time government was enabled to dispense with almost 
all taxes, except customs. The consequence was that 
a habit of reckless finance was engendered, waste and 
extravagance were encouraged, and that self-restraint 
and economy which alone can ensure the continuance 
of prosperity had no existence in the country. 

After six \'ears of profound peace and increasing 
prosperity the constitutional period of the term of office 
of Grand-Marshal Don Ramon Castilla came to an end. 
The candidates to succeed him were San Roman, Vi- 
vanco, Echenique, and Domingo Elias, the great vine 
grower at Pisco and Yea. Echenique was elected. 

Jose Rufino Echenique was a native of Puno, born in 
1808 of good family and Basque descent. As a lad he 
joined the patriots, but was a prisoner on the island 
of Esteves in Lake Titicaca, at the time of the battle 
of A3'acucho. He brought about the "embrace of Ma- 
quinhua3^o" in 1834, and at the battle of Yunga)' he 
served on the side of Santa Cruz and the confedera- 
tion, but made his peace with Gamarra. Declaring 
against Vivanco in 1843, he became a member of Cas- 
tilla's council of state, and was elected constitutional 
president of Peru on April 20th, 1851. Echenique was 
influentially connected. He married Victoria, daughter 
of Don Pio Tristan, the last Spanish intendente of Are- 
quipa, and for a few weeks nominally viceroy of Peru. 
General Torrico was his minister of war, Don Manuel 
Tirado of foreign affairs, and Dr. Charun (Bishop of 
Truxillo) of justice. General Echenique had little mil- 
itary talent or experience, and had passed many years 
of his life in agricultural pursuits. 

For three years of Echenique's administration, Castil- 
la's peace was maintained. The curse of too easily 
acquired wealth had, however, brought with it corrup- 



346 A HISTORY OF PERU 

tion and a want of conscientiousness among the serv- 
ants of the state. A congress met in 1853 and extended 
the period for receiving claims with regard to the inter- 
nal debt. A sum of ^8,000,000 was added to it, and 
there was a suspicion that a profligate manipulation of 
this sum was in progress, for the benefit of ministers 
and their friends. The country became scandalized. 
Discontent began to show itself in open revolt. When 
the congress of 1853 concluded its sittings, Don Do- 
mingo Elias made a solemn appeal to the nation, against 
the government. Gathering around him his tenants at 
Pisco and Yea he rose in rebellion, but was defeated 
in the battle of Saraja on Januar}^ 7th, 1854. Castilla 
hesitated long. It was contrary to all the principles 
of his life to rise against a constitutional government. 
The blessings of peace, which he had secured for his 
country, had been enjoyed for ten years. On the other 
hand the government was very unpopular, and was 
disgracing the country by its self-seeking and corrup- 
tion. Reluctantly he made up his mind to head the 
movement against Echenique. He went to Arequipa, 
and was there joined by Don Domingo Elias. 

In March 1854 General Torrico, the minister of war, 
was sent to put down the revolt. He encamped on 
the heights of Paucar-pata for several days, but even- 
tually declared that an attack upon Arequipa would 
infallibly bring upon him a fate similar to that which 
overtook General Whitelocke at Buenos Ayres. He, 
therefore, returned to Callao. Leaving Elias at Are- 
quipa, Castilla then proceeded to Cuzco where he or- 
ganized an army, and was joined by General San Ro- 
man. On June ist, 1854, he published a decree in 
which he declared that he accepted the supreme mag- 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 347 

istracy as provisional president. He then commenced 
his march to Ayacucho. 

The government sent a second expedition to the 
south under General Moran. The civilian Elias ad- 
vanced against him from Arequipa in the direction of 
Moquegua, and the two forces encountered each other 
at Alto del Conde. Moran was victorious, and, follow- 
ing up his success, he attacked Arequipa. The city 
was fiercely defended by the inhabitants, who barricaded 
the streets and fought all night of November 30th, 1854. 
In the morning Moran found himself beaten and was 
forced to capitulate. Two hours afterward, having 
been declared by the people to be a "sanguinary strang- 
er, " he was shot in the great square of Arequipa. He 
was a Colombian who had served for many 3^ears under 
Santa Cruz. Castilla marched from Ayacucho on the 
29th of June, the troops of Echenique retreating before 
him. 'On the 5th of July he decreed the abolition of 
the tribute paid by the Indians. Echenique, in per- 
son, concentrated his forces in the valley of Xauxa, and 
the two armies came in sight of each other at the 
bridge of Iscuchaca on the 2nd of August. Castilla 
tenaciously defended the passage for several hours, and 
at. last Echenique, though in largely superior numbers, 
retreated to Xauxa and remained inactive. Castilla 
then conceived the idea of making a circuitous march 
so as to get between his rival and the capital. This 
obliged Echenique to fall back toward Lima. Cas- 
tilla advanced on a parallel line. At last Echenique 
commenced a precipitate retreat in the end of October. 
Castilla was reinforced by 2,300 men under General 
San Roman. At Huancayo he decreed the immediate 
emancipation of all negro slaves. 

On the loth of December the march to the coast 



348 A HISTORY OF PERU 

was commenced, and on the 29th the army reached 
the valley of the Rimac near Miraflores. Once more 
the two armies were in sight of each other. That of 
Echenique was encamped outside of Lima, with cav- 
alry and artillery, under the command of General Pe- 
zet. For six days there was a cannonade. On the 
5th of January, 1855, the battle of La Palma was fought, 
and Castilla was completely victorious. He entered 
Lima in triumph, and General Echenqiue embarked 
at Callao. The ex-president was allowed to return as 
a private citizen in 1862, and, after having again been 
a candidate for the presidency in 1872, he died at 
Lima, at the age of sevent5^-eight,in January, 1887. 

A congress was convoked in February, and it was 
opened b}^ Castilla on July 14th, 1855. He was elected 
constitutional President of Peru. His acts in abolish- 
ing the tribute paid by the Indians, and in the total 
abolition of negro slavery were approved and confirmed. 
The congress then became constituent, and framed a 
new constitution which superseded the constitution of 
Huancayo. It was completed in October, 1856, and 
was finally revised b}^ a commission and ratified on 
November 25th, i860. 

There was not much change in the two houses which 
form the congress, or in the mode of electing repre- 
sentatives , but a new provision was inserted that, in 
the interval between two sessions of congress, there was 
to be a permanent commission of the legislature elected 
at the end of each session, consisting of seven senators 
and eight deputies. The chamber of deputies ma}^ ac- 
cuse the president of infractions of the constitution 
and the senate decides. 

The president is elected by the people for four in- 
stead of six years, and he cannot be re-elected until 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 349 

a similar period has elapsed. The office is vacated by 
death by making a contract prejudicial to the integ- 
rity or independence of the nation, by illegally dissolv- 
ing congress or suspending its session, and at the end 
of the term. Instead of the council of state, there are 
two vice presidents. When the president is command- 
ing an army in the field the exercise of his office is 
suspended, and the first vice president takes his place, 
succeeding for the rest of his term in the event of his 
death. There is a council of ministers, and ever}^ de- 
cree or order of the president must be countersigned 
b}' one of them. The}- can speak in either chamber, 
but can not vote. 

The s\^stem of government b}^ prefects, and the judi- 
cial system were not altered. Forced recruiting was 
declared a crime. 

Municipal committees were formed in each district 
to arrange local affairs, and have charge of local funds. 

The constitution of i860 is the one which is still in 
force. 

Peace had continued during Castilla's second term 
of office for nearly two years, when an insurrection 
broke out at Arequipa. In the evening of the 31st of 
October, 1856, a few half-castes, led by two young men 
of good family named Gamio and Masias, got posses- 
sion of Arequipa, and were joined by the troops, who 
w^ere nearl}/ all natives of the town. Next day General 
Vivanco was declared president and that restless pol- 
itician arrived from Chile in December. General San 
Roman was sent b}^ the government to make proposals 
for an amicable arrangement, but this was looked upon 
as a sign of weakness, and the overtures were scorn- 
fully rejected. The outbreak was, however, quite local, 
none of the others cities joining Arequipa. It would 



350 A HISTORY OF PERU 

have been quickly suppressed, if it had not been for 
the mutiny of the fleet. 

The fleet then consisted of the "Apurimac" frigate, 
and the "Loa" and "Tumbez, " small steamers. The 
captain of the "Apurimac" was a rough old Chilean 
sailor disliked by his officers, named Salcedo. He 
went on shore at Arica to have luncheon with Mr. 
Nugent, the British vice-consul, on November i6th, 
1856. While he was sitting in the consulate it was 
observed that the "Apurimac" was getting up steam, 
and soon afterward she proceeded to sea. Captain 
SaJcedo could scarcely believe his eyes. He ran down 
to the beach, swearing and shouting, and calling upon 
th boatmen to take him out to his ship. The leader of 
the mutiny was one of the lieutenants named Lizardo 
Montero, a native of Piura, aged about twenty-seven. 
The service he did to the insurgents was of immense 
importance. He steamed to Islay, was joined b}^ the 
"Loa" and later by the "Tumbez," and took possession 
of the port in the name of Vivanco. 

But the whole country remained faithful to the gov- 
ernment, and the insurrection was confined to Arequipa 
and the mutinous frigate. In this respect a great 
change was perceptible. There was no longer an ex- 
hibition of reckless love of change at the first seditious 
cry. 

General Vivanco went on board the "Apurimac" 
and proceeded to Callao, but he did not attempt to 
land. He then went northward in the "Loa," and 
his reception was so cold at the different ports, which 
all remained loyal, that he returned to Callao. In 
April, 1857, he landed some troops which were repulsed 
by the national guard with the deaths of Generals 
Plaza and Lopera. This concluded Vivanco's cruise, 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 351 

and he returned to Islay without having effected any- 
thing. 

President Castilla, bereft of his navy, retained all his 
old audacity and pluck. He brought an old steamer 
called the "Santiago," and took the resolution of run- 
ning the gauntlet of the insurgents' fleet. Landing at 
Arica, he organized an effective force, and marched to 
the valley of Arequipa in July, 1857. In August he 
encamped at the villages of Sachaca, Tingo, and Tia- 
vaya, so as to cut off communications between Are- 
quipa and the ships at Islay. Vivanco was thus re- 
duced to great straits, supplies daily growing scarcer. 

Meanwhile the cholos or half-castes were throwing 
up barricades and digging trenches in the streets, while 
the old president remained at Sachaca, organizing his 
army and biding his time. 

The seizure of Arica by Montero, made it necessary 
that Castilla should end the campaign. His clear judg- 
ment told him that the hour for action had come. In 
the evening of March 5th, 1858, he occupied the Pan- 
teon. Two battalions under General San Roman left 
the camp at night, followed by two more under Colonel 
Buendia. They had orders to attack the church of San 
Antonio. Three pieces of artillery were brought up, 
which soon cleared the street, and the troops captured 
the church. The defenders of Arequipa then retreated 
to San Pedro, which had been barricaded around. Here 
there was a fierce struggle which lasted four hours, 
the cholos contesting every inch of ground. Driven 
from San Pedro, they barricaded themselves in the con- 
vent of Santa Rosa and it took another four hours to 
dislodge them. The old president came up to inspect 
the position and seeing that it was impregnable in 
front, he broke in by a back street which the defenders 



352 A HISTORY OF PERU 

had overlooked. They held out with wonderful daring 
and tenacity, night closing on the fight. N-ext day, 
March 7th, the remaining barricades were taken with 
a rush, and all resistance ceased. 

Vivanco took refuge in the house of Messrs. Gibbs, 
the English merchants, whence he escaped to Islay in 
the disguise of a friar. Castilla connived at his de- 
parture, knowing quite well where he was. He returned 
to Chile. Arica was given up directly the news ar- 
rived, and Montero surrendered the "Apurimac" to the 
government at Callao. He remained in exile until 
i860, when he was allowed to return. The insurrec- 
tion at Arequipa lasted about fifteen months, from De- 
cember, 1856, to March, 1858. But it was confined to 
one town ; thus differing widely from previous civil 
wars. It caused some loss, but it did not check the 
progress of the countr^^ which had been continuous 
since the establishment of Castilla's peace. 

Order was completely restored. In 1858 it was found 
that Ecuador, in making an arrangement with her cred- 
itors, was preparing to grant to them some territory 
which was claimed by Peru. Decided measures seemed 
advisable. In the autumn of 1859 the Peruvian fleet 
blockaded Guayaquil, and Castilla landed, with a small 
force, at Mapasinga above the town. No actual en- 
counter took place, a treat}^ was made with the Ecuador- 
ian president, and the Peruvians returned in Febru- 
ary, 1859. 

The fifteenth congress met at Lima on the 28th of 
July, i860, and the revised constitution was adopted. 
Under its provisions first and second vice presidents 
were inaugurated. The first was Don Jose Manuel del 
Mar, a native of Cuzco, and an active public man of 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 353 

good reputation who had been in official life since 
1830. The second was General Pezet. 

Juan Antonio Pezet was the son of the eminent phy- 
sician who, with Dr. Unanue, had been one of the very 
earliest advocates of freedom in Peru, and who perished 
in Callao Castle during the siege. Born at Lima in 
1810, his son was only twelve years old when he es- 
caped from college and joined the patriot ranks. In 
1831 he married Dona Juana Tirado y Zegarra, a lady of 
Arequipa, by whom he had an only son, Federico. 
Young Pezet was aide-de-camp to General Sucre at 
A3^acucho. He became a colonel in 1833, and was 
aide-de-camp to President Orbegoso. Removed from 
the army list in 1839, for his adherence to the fallen 
cause of the confederation, he was restored in 1842, 
and was made a general by La Fuente, on the battle- 
field of Agua Santa. He was wounded and taken pris- 
oner at the battle of Carmen Alto, where he was on 
the side of Vivanco, but Castilla, seeing his ability, ap- 
pointed him prefect of Moquegua in 1847. Echenique 
made him inspector-general of the army, and he was 
again on the losing side at the battle of La Palma. 
He was, however, only banished for nine months, and 
in 1859 Castilla made him minister of war. The sec- 
ond vice president was a very tall, handsome man of 
soldier-like appearance, and was possessed of consid- 
erable administrative talent. 

Toward the close of Castilla's second administra- 
tion, in a period of peace and settled government, the 
country had made a considerable stride toward pros- 
perity, while a generation was rising up to whom the 
first turbulent twenty years of the republic was only 
known as a traditional warning. The following figures 
give some idea of the condition of Peru in i860 — 

23 



354 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

Income (including §15,875,352 from guano) $20,954,791 

Expenditure (including interest of debt) 20,387,756 

Foreign debt "24,205,400 

Internal debt 9,639,670 

Value of exports (exclusive of guano) 16,715,672 

" imports 15,319,222 

Guano sold in Europe (£12 a ton) 138,797 tons. 

Army 9,500 men. 

The nav}^ consisted of the "Apurimac" and "Amazonas' 
frigates, "Loa," "Tumbez, " "Ucayali." Railroads had 
been opened from Lima to Callao in 1852, from Arica to 
Tacna in 1857, and from Lima to Chorrillos in 1858. But 
the most important and useful measures adopted during 
Castilla's administration were connected with the im- 
provement of prisons and the condition of prisoners. 
Don Mariano Paz Soldan had devoted his attention to 
this subject for manv years, and in 1853 he had visited 
the prisons of the United States, and submitted an 
elaborate report. The penitentiary of Lima was com- 
menced, under his superintendence, in 1856. The 
foundations, basement, and first story are entirely built 
of a hard porphyritic stone brought from a quarry in 
the neighboring hills, a tram-road connecting it with 
the works. The entrance is by a flight of four steps 
cut out of one stone. The second story is of brick, 
and the iron for gratings and doors came out read}^ made 
from England. The wards for men, women, and bo3^s 
are separate, each with a large well ventilated work- 
room and a court-37ard for exercise. In the top story 
is the house of the governor, the infirmary, and chapel. 
The penitentiary holds two hundred and eight men, 
fift3/-two women, and fifty-two bo3''S, and ever3^thing is 
arranged on the best models. It is creditable alike to 
the patriotic zeal and intelligence of Senor Paz Soldan, 
and to the enlightened and progressive policy of Cas- 
tilla's government. 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 355 

On October 24th, 1862, Grand Marshal Ramon Cas- 
tilla resigned his office as president of the republic into 
the hands of his friend and successor Grand Marshal 
Miguel San Roman : General Pezet became first, and 
General Pedro Diaz Canseco, the brother-in-law of 
Castilla, second vice president. Castilla lived in re- 
tirement at Lima and Chorrillos tor three years, and in 
1865 became president of the senate. Since he restored 
the reign of law in 1844, a period of eighteen years 
had elapsed. Except one year occupied in expelling 
Echenique, and the purely local outbreak at Arequipa, 
the whole period had been one of peace and of moral 
and material progress. For this inestimable blessing 
the valiant old warrior deserved well of his country. 
He was a rough soldier, with arbitrary notions on some 
points. But he respected the law, and he loved his 
country. 

Miguel San Roman, the new president, fought for 
Pumacagua at the battle of Umachiri in 1815, by the 
side of his father, when he was a very little boy. His 
father was afterward taken prisoner, and shot by the 
Spaniards in the square of Puno, in the boy's presence. 

Young Miguel naturally imbibed intense hatred for 
Spanish rule, and when he heard of the arrival of Lord 
Cochrane on the coast, he hurried down from his moun- 
tain home as a volunteer of freedom. San Roman was 
a captain at the battle of Ayacucho. He was a man of 
unswerving loyalty. He became an adherent of Ga- 
marra, and served him with undeviating fidelit}^ until 
his death. He then attached himself to Castilla, and 
remained true to him with the same loyal devotion 
until he was elected as his successor. San Roman was 
remarkable for his skill in rapidly collecting and organ- 
izing a force, and for his marvelously rapid marches. 



356 A HISTORY OF PERU 

He had a handsome face of Indian t_vpe, and his thick 
white hair was brushed off his forehead. He was an 
interesting companion, full of anecdote, and held lib- 
eral and enlightened views. He spoke both Quichua 
and A5'mara flaentl}^ was beloved by his soldiers, and 
possessed minute topographical knowledge, indeed he 
knew ever}^ foot of the Andes. Unfortunatel}' San 
Roman died within six months of his election. He was 
succeeded, in accordance with the constitution, b}^ the 
first vice-president, Pezet, who was absent in Europe. 
General Canseco, the second vice-president, had charge 
until his return, and on August 5th, 1863, President 
Pezet assumed office. During his administration the 
decimal S3'stem of coinage was introduced into Peru, 
the "Sol" taking the place of the old "Peso" or dollar. 
The period of Pezet's presidentship was wholh' oc- 
cupied with a dispute with Spain. The mother coun- 
try had signed a treaty of recognition with Peru in 
1853, and Don Joachim de Osma was appointed min- 
•ister at Madrid. In 1863 a Spanish squadron commanded 
b}^ Admiral Pinzon, who flew his flag on board the 
"Resolucion, " came out to the Pacific, ostensibl}^ with 
scientific objects, but a special envo}^ named Mazarre- 
do, with the peculiar title of ro^^al commissar}^ ar- 
rived at Lima at the same time. Cause of quarrel 
soon arose. Sevent5Mamilies of Basques from Guipuz- 
coa had been engaged to settle on the cotton and rice 
estate of Talambo in the coast valle}^ of Jequetepeque, 
belonging to a wealth}^ proprietor named Manuel Sal- 
cedo. The}^ arrived in i860 and were to be emplo3^ed 
on cotton cultivation, with plots of land of their own. 
They complained that the contract with them had not 
been kept. When some of them went to the proprietor's 
house to discuss their grievances in August, 1863, it 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 357 

was alleged that they were attacked by armed men, 
one Basque being killed and four wounded. The pun- 
ishment of the offenders was tardy, and there were 
long delays in the supreme court. This was the "Ques- 
tion Talambo." It formed grounds of just complaint, 
but it might easily have been settled if the Spanish 
commissary had desired a peaceful solution. He evi- 
dently did not, but raked up other frivolous complaints, 
made a preposterous claim of ^3,000,000 as indemnifi- 
cation, and demanded that the Spanish squadron should 
receive a salute of twenty-one guns. Having made 
these demands Mazarredo suddenly went on board a 
Spanish gun-boat, and Admiral Pinzon, with the two 
frigates "Resolucion" and "Triunfo," seized upon the 
Chincha Islands on April 14th, 1864, as a material 
guarantee. General Pezet's government had only the 
" Apurimac, " "Loa, " "Tumbez, " and some smaller wood- 
en ships available, but when the seizure of the Chincha 
Islands took place, the "Esmeralda," a Chilean ship, 
was lying in Callao, and the Peruvian government 
asked Sefior Montt, Chilean minister, with whose gov- 
ernment Peru was tr^ang to make alliance in case of 
war, to allow his ship to join the Peruvian squadron 
in order to attack the Spaniards. Montt's reply was 
to give the "Esmeralda" orders to leave Peruvian waters 
that same evening, and so Peru lost a splendid op- 
portunity of destroying the Spanish ships. The "Tri- 
unfo" was accidentally burned in Pisco Bay in the fol- 
lowing November, but reinforcements were on their 
way from Spain. 

President Pezet temporized. He felt that he was 
too weak to reject the demands of Spain at the moment : 
but. two ironclads, the "Huascar" and "Independencia" 
and two wooden corvettes "Union" and "America" were 



358 A HISTORY OF PERU 

being built for Peru in Europe and government com- 
missioners were purchasing the necessary war materials 
in order to be prepared for any emergency. The gov- 
ernment expected before long to be able to assume a dif- 
ferent tone. Meanwhile it was necessary to gain time. 
Pinzon had been relieved by Admiral Pareja in Decem- 
ber. Pezet employed General Vivanco to negotiate with 
Pareja, and on the 27th of January, 1865, the Peruvian 
government agreed to an arrangement, which was con- 
sidered derogatory by the great bulk of the nation. In 
February there was a popular outbreak at Callao. Cas- 
tilla was president of the senate, and he went to the pal- 
ace and had a violent altercation with Pezet. On the 6th 
of February the ex-president was seized, hurried on 
board the brigantine "Guise" and eventuall}^ landed in 
England. He remained in Europe for about a year. 
His brother-in-law, the second vice-president, General 
Canseco, proceeded to Arequipa. 

Admiral Pareja, having forced the government of 
Pezet to agree to his terms, believed himself to be ir- 
resistible, and proceeded to pick a quarrel with Chile. 
He had five frigates and three gun-boats under his 
command at Callao. The "Numancia" was an iron clad 
with forty guns, the "Villa de Madrid" fort37-six guns, 
"Resolucion" forty guns, " Blanca" thirty-six guns, 
"Berenguela" thirty-six guns, gun-boats "Covadonga, " 
"Vencedora, " and transport "Marques de la Victoria," 
altogether two hundred and seven guns. In Septem- 
ber all the Spanish fleet proceeded to Valparaiso, ex- 
cept the "Numancia" which remained at Callao under 
command of Mendez Nunez. The Chilean navy then 
consisted of the "Esmeralda" and "Maypu," which es- 
caped southward. Pareja, in the "Villa de Madrid," 
sent in an ultimatum demanding indemnifications for 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 359 

alleged wrongs. Compliance was at once refused, and 
he began the blockade. Chile then declared war on 
September 25th, 1865. The first event was the capture 
of the Spanish gun-boat "Covadonga" by the Chilean 
corvette "Esmeralda" with an armament of sixteen 
thirty-two pounders in the following November, fol- 
lowed immediately by the suicide of Pareja. Admiral 
Mendez Nunez then took command of the Spanish fleet. 

Interpreting the public feeling in Peru, the prefect 
of Arequipa, Colonel Mariano Ignacio Prado, a native 
of Huanuco, declared against the government of Gen- 
eral Pezet, and made preparations to march on Lima. 
The success of this movement was most important to 
Chile, and a sort of envoy with very full powers was 
sent to Arequipa. Don Domingo Santa Maria was an 
advanced liberal, strongly opposed to the oligarchy 
which ruled in Chile, and he had suffered for his cause 
from illegal persecution and banishment on two occa- 
sions. But his rare abilities and talent for affairs in- 
duced him to take office under President Perez, and to 
accept this delicate mission to Prado. There were 
many delays, but at last the insurgents commenced their 
march along the coast, Prado being accompanied b}^ 
the second vice-president Canseco, which gave the 
movement a certain air of legality, and by the Chilean 
envoy Santa Maria, but his men were half armed and 
undisciplined. 

Pezet had a splendidly equipped army, and he could 
have scattered Pradb's rabble with ease. But he felt 
that his motives had been misunderstood, and that 
public opinion was against him. He followed the pat- 
riotic example set by Echenique at Maquinhayo, and 
by Vidal in 1843. In order to save his country from 
a civil war, he voluntarily resigned, and went on board 



36o A HISTORY OF PERU 

a British man-of-war, at Callao, on the 6th of Novem- 
ber. 1865, whence he sailed tor England. He returned 
after the feeling against him had calmed down, in 1871, 
and he lived a retired life at Chorrillos, always refusing 
to enter public employment again. When the war with 
Chile was imminent, his old opponent, General Prado, 
told his ministers that the man best fitted to take chief 
command of the army of the republic was General 
Pezet. He died in 1879 universally regretted, and all 
feeling against him was buried in his tomb. President 
Prado himself was represented at the funeral as one 
of the pall-bearers. 

Colonel Prado was declared supreme chief, while 
General Canseco, who had become chief of the state 
according to the constitution, was set aside. Prado at 
once formed a close offensive and defensive treaty with 
Chile under the auspices of Santa Maria, which was 
signed on December 12th, 1866, and Peru declared war 
with Spain almost at the same time. The declaration 
was signed by Prado as supreme chief, Jose Galvez 
(minister of war), Pacheco (of foreign affairs), Manuel 
Pardo (of finance), Quimper (of the interior), and 
Tejeda (of justice), on January 14th, 1866. The first 
measure was to place the allied vessels of war, which 
were unable to cope with the powerful Spanish fleet, 
in a place of safet}^ The intricate channel of Abtao 
was selected, between the main-land and the island of 
Chiloe. Besides the "Amazonas, " Peru had three new 
corvettes, the "Union"(tweive guns), "America" (twelve 
guns) and "Lerzundi." Unfortunately the "Amazonas" 
and "Lerzundi" were lost on the passage; but the 
"Apurimac" commanded by Don Manuel Villar, the 
"Union" under Captain Grau, and the"America" formed 
a junction with the Chilean squadron, consisting of 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 361 

tha Esmeralda," "Maypu" and the captured Spanish 
gunboat "Covadonga, " in the Abtao Channel, in Feb- 
ruary, 1866. They waited anxiously for the Peruvian 
iron-clads "Huascar" and "Independencia, "which, how- 
ever, did not arrive in time. They repulsed an attack 
from the Spanish ships "Villa de Madrid" and "Blanca, " 
but it was merely a cannonade at long range : chiefly 
maintained, on the part of the allies, by Villar and 
Grau on board the "Apurimac" and "Union." 

The Spanish ships returned to Valparaiso on the 
15th of February, and on the 31st of March Mendez 
Nunez proceeded to bombard that unprotected sea-port. 

The government of Prado, expecting an attack from 
the Spanish fleet as soon as Valparaiso had been bom- 
barded, made active preparations for defence. The 
Peruvians had now received part of the armament or- 
dered by the previous government, and had four Arm- 
strong 300 pounders, five 450 pound Blakele3^s, one no 
pounder, and forty-seven guns from 68 to 32 pounders, 
and altogether fifty-seven guns : under the general 
command of Colonel Ugartecha. Three Blakeleys 
were in the "Santa Rosa" and another battery of sand 
bags, near the railway station. Then came three bat- 
teries armed with 68 and 32 pounders. A tower, some- 
what roughly protected with iron plates, was armed 
with two of the Armstrongs, and next it were two bat- 
teries armed with 32 pounders. These formed the north- 
ern defences under tlie command of Colonel La Cotera. 
The southern defences, under Colonel Inclan, consisted 
of the "Ayacucho" battery armed with two Blakeleys, 
directed by Colonel Caceres, the "Pichincha" battery 
with 32 pounders, the "Junin" iron-clad tower with two 
Armstrongs under Major Tomas Iglesias, and the "In- 
dependencia" with six 32 pounders. For the defence 



362 A HISTORY OF PERU 

of the town, the "Loa" of seven hundred tons, under 
Captain Camilo Carrillo, was moored head and stern, 
with a no pounder on board, the "Victoria" a small 
monitor, and the "Tumbez" with two 32 pounders un- 
der Lieutenant Lizardo Montero. This action is mem- 
orable as the first in which iron-clad towers have been 
engaged. 

The Spanish fleet arrived on the 27th of April, 1866, 
and declared the blockade of Callao. The patriotic 
excitement at Lima and Callao was intense. The vet- 
eran generals. La Fuente, Echenique, La Puerta, and 
others came forward as volunteers. All flocked to 
Callao. The students of the naval college were not 
allowed out, but they effected their escape, climbed 
over the roofs, and fifteen reached the batteries, re- 
solved to die for their countr}^ Two were killed. 
Among the ladies who nursed the wounded, foremost 
were the wife of Colonel Prado and the widow of Vice- 
President del Mar. 

The Spanish fleet consisted of the formidable iron- 
clad "Numancia" with forty guns, the "Almanza" (fifty 
guns), "Villa de Madrid" (forty-six guns), "Resolucion" 
(forty guns), "Blanca" and "Berenguela" (thirt}^ guns 
each), and "Vencedora" gun-boat with three guns. The 
total number of guns was one hundred and forty-five, 
chiefl}^ 68 pounders, but only seventy-two were availa- 
ble at one time. 

At about noon of the 2nd of May the action was 
commenced by Admiral Mendez Nunez, who opened 
fire from the "Numancia." It was quickly answered 
from the shore, and soon the fire was general all along 
both lines. The "Villa de Madrid" was struck by a 
Blakeley shot from the "Ayacucho" batter}^ under Ca- 
ceres, disabling thirty-five men and making an enor- 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 363 

mous breach. The engines were rendered useless, and 
she was towed out of action. The "Numancia" was 
close in. She had her bridge shot away, and the ad- 
miral was wounded. The "Blanca, " engaging the south- 
ern batteries, blew up the iron-clad tower, and then 
helped the "Numancia" to silence the "Santa Rosa" 
battery. Don Jose Galvez, the jninister of war, was in 
the tower, and was blown to atoms. At 5 p. m. only 
five guns were replying to the Spanish fire. At sunset 
the "Numancia" made the signal to retreat, and the 
fieet anchored off the island of San Lorenzo. The "Nu- 
mancia" was struck fift3^-two times, one shot penetrat- 
ing twenty-five centimetres, and the "Almanza" sixty- 
times. The "Berenguela" was disabled by two enor- 
mous projectiles. The "Resolucion" and "Blanca" were 
struck thirty times, with slight injury, but the "Villa de 
Madrid" was completely disabled. The Spanish loss 
was one hundred and ninety-four killed and wounded. 

The Peruvians suffered much more severely, their 
killed and wounded amounting to 2,000. Among their 
dead were the minister of war, five colonels, and twenty 
other officers. They had fought a very gallant action, 
which restored their self-respect, and excited the ad- 
miration of their Chilean neighbors. The Chilean 
minister, in writing to his government, spoke of Peru 
as "that valiant and noble nation." The city of San- 
tiago presented Prado with a sword, the letter of pre- 
sentation being signed by Santa Maria. 

On the 9th of May, 1866, the Spanish fleet sailed 
from San Lorenzo, and abandoned further hostilities. 
Some of the ships returned to Spain by way of the Phil 
ippines, others by the Atlantic. The officers and men 
of this squadron deserved well of their country. With 
a squadron of six frigates, five of them wooden, at 



364 A HISTORY OF PERU 

a distance of 12,000 miles from their own country, 
without resources beyond what could be found on 
board the ships themselves, without a single port in 
which they could repair damages, for a distance of 
3,000 miles, and after a long campaign, they did not 
hesitate to attack very formidable fortifications armed 
with guns of large calibre. Their gallant conduct ^vas 
worthy of the renown of Cosme de Churruca and of 
the other naval worthies of their nation. A medal was 
struck in their honor after their return to Spain. In 
1871 a truce was arranged through the mediation of 
the United States, and on the 14th of August, 1879, 
a treaty of peace was signed at Paris between Spain 
and Peru. 

When the great enthusiasm caused by the action of 
the 2nd of May, which will be a red letter day for Peru 
for all time, had subsided. Colonel Prado began to find 
that the unconstitutional character of his position as 
supreme chief was not forgotten. The terrible old 
grand-marshal, Don Ramon Castilla, was opposed to 
all forms of illegality, and he had returned from Europe. 
He considered that the constitution must be respected ; 
according to which General Canseco was acting-pres- 
ident of Peru until the result of fresh elections was 
known. Castilla resolved, once more, to enforce the 
reign of law. He landed at Pisagua, on the coast of 
Tarapaca, in May, 1867, and advanced up the desert 
ravine of Tiliviche with a very small escort. But he 
was past seventy. He required too much from his aged 
and enfeebled frame. He was taken ill, and died by 
the road-side, wrapped in his military cloak, his head 
resting on the breast of his nephew Eugenio Castilla, 
on the 30th of May, 1867. No country ever had a 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 365 

truer or more devoted servant, or one who did it more 
signal service. 

His cause triumphed. Colonel Jose Balta headed 
an insurrection against Prado, at Chiclayo in the north, 
and General Canseco, the vice-president, rose at Are- 
quipa in September. Prado attempted to take the 
place by assault on the 7th of January, 1868, but was 
repulsed. He then gave up further opposition and 
retired to Chile. General Pedro Diez Canseco assumed 
his constitutional position in charge of the executive. 
He at once convoked the electoral colleges for the 
election of a constitutional president, whose term of 
office was to commence on the 2nd of August, 1868. 
The choice fell on Colonel Jose Balta. 



CHAPTER XVII 

HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC PRESIDENTS BALTA AND PAR- 
DO PERUVIAN PUBLIC WORKS — CHILEAN PRETEXfS FOR 

WAR 

A new period in the history of Peru commenced with 
the administration of President Balta. The heroes of 
Ayacucho had passed away from public life. General 
Pezet was the last who held the office of president of 
the republic. Balta was only eight years old when Ay- 
acucho was fought, and he did not enter the army 
until 1833. As a young man he attached himself to 
the fortunes of Salaverry, and was taken prisoner at 
the battle of Socabaya when he was only nineteen. 
He was kept in captivity at Santa Cruz de la Sierra 
for nearly three years, but he was at the battle of Yun- 
gay with Gamarra, and at Carmen Alto and La Palma 
with Castilla. He was a short time minister of war in 
1865, and was present at the action of the 2nd of May. 
Colonel Balta was in his fifty-second year when he be- 
came president, a man of great energy and resource, 
and full of schemes for the material progress of his 
country. The history of his government is the history 
of gigantic public works executed by means of vast 

loans. It was a period of peace and prosperity, but 

366 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 367 

also of reckless disregard for the consequences of draw- 
ing, without limit, on the near future. 

Balta increased the public debt enormously. Up to 
1868 it amounted tO;2{^3,8oo,ooo which was not more than 
the country could bear. But in 1870 a loan of ^11,- 
920,000 was raised, and in 1872 another was negotiated 
of ^36,800,000 to include the old debt. Government 
also guaranteed ^290,000 for the Pisco and Yea rail- 
road. So that the whole foreign debt of Peru became 
;^49,ooo,ooo and the interest about ^£"2, 500,000, a sum 
which it would be quite impossible for the countr}^ to 
pay out of ordinary revenue. Then the famous con- 
tractor Henry Meiggs and others were called in, and 
colossal public works were inaugurated. 

All the fertile coast valleys to the north of Lima 
were to be provided with lines of railway to convey 
their produce to their respective ports. These lines 
were contracted for in 1872 and, being in short lengths, 
they will doubtless be remunerative. The most north- 
ern line is sixty-three miles long, and connects the 
city of Piura wich the sea-port of Payta, tapping a 
rich cotton-producing district. The two next lines 
run from Pimentel to Chiclayo and Lambayeque, and 
from Eten to the rice fields of Ferrenafe, the latter fifty 
miles long. The railway from Pacasmayu to Magda- 
lena, ninety-three miles long, furnishes the fertile val- 
ley of Jequetepegue with the means of transport, and 
is eventually to be extended to Caxamarca. Next there 
was a project to serve the rich sugar and rice estates 
of the vale of Chicama, by a railway twenty five miles 
long from Malabrigo to Ascope. The line, eighty-five 
miles long, from the new port of Salaverry to the city 
of Truxillo, connects the capital of an important de- 
partment with the sea. Only fifty two miles are fin- 



368 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ished of the line which is to extend eventually for one 
hundred and seventy-two miles from the sea at Chim- 
bote to Huaraz. There are two lines from Lima to 
Callao, one from Lima to Chorrillos, and one from Lima 
to Chancay, forty-two miles long. The railroad from 
Pisco to Yea has a length of forty-eight miles. 

For the convenience of the nitrate works in Tara- 
paca three railroads were constructed ; and one for the 
silver mines at Cerro Pasco, fifteen miles long, 

Two main lines were projected to cross the Andes. 
That from Callao, by Lima, to Oroya in the valley of 
Xauxa was commenced in 1870, and is to be one hun- 
dred and thirty-six miles long. Of this distance eighty- 
seven miles to Chicla, are finished. It rises 5,000 
feet in forty-six miles, tunnels the Andes at 15,645. 
feet, and terminates at Oroya 12,178 feet above the 
sea. There are sixty-three tunnels, and the bridge of 
Verrugas spanned a chasm five hundred and eighty 
feet wide, the central pier of hollow wrought iron be- 
ing two hundred and fifty-two feet high. The com- 
pletion of eighty-seven miles of this railroad cost 
^4,625,887. 

The other great line across the Andes connects the 
sea-port of Mollendo with Puno, on the banks of Lake 
Titicaca, passing by Arequipa. It has a branch to 
Juliaca, which will eventually be extended to Cuzco. 
The portion from Mollendo to Arequipa, running for 
one hundred and seven miles over a waterless desert, 
was completed in 1870. In order to supply Mollendo 
with water, an iron pipe has been laid down along side 
the line for eighty-five miles. It starts from an ele- 
vation of seven thousand feet near Arequipa, crosses 
the desert, and discharges 433,000 gallons of water at 
Mollendo, in twenty-four hours. This is the largest 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 369 

iron aqueduct in the world. From Arequipa to Puno 
the line is two hundred and thirty-two miles long, the 
highest embankment being one hundred and forty-one, 
and the deepest cutting one hundred and twenty-seven 
feet. There is only one short tunnel and four bridges. 
The summit is crossed at 14,660 feet above the sea. 
On January ist, 1874, the first locomotive reached the 
shore of Lake Titicaca ; upon the waters of which ac- 
tive steps were taken to introduce steam navigation. 
A factory was established at Puno, two screw steamers 
were sent out in pieces from London of twenty tons 
each, called the "Yaravi" and the "Yapura, " and by 
March, 1874, they had been successfully launched. 
The cost of the Puno railway was ^4,346,659. 

Balta's whole scheme of state railways, when com- 
pleted, will have a length of 1,281 miles, private lines 
seven hundred and forty-nine ; altogether twenty-two 
lines with a length of 2,030 miles. They were to 
cost ^37,500,000. 

But the attention of Balta^s government was not 
confined to railroads. The improvement of the ports 
was an object which gave rise to numerous schemes. 
In 1870 a new work was commenced at Callao, called 
the "Muelle y Darsena. " The bed of the bay was ex- 
cavated to a depth of sixteen and a width of one hun- 
dred and forty feet, on the site of an intended sea 
wall. This space was then filled with rubble-stone 
and £jravel, up to within twenty-six feet of high water 
mark, so as to make an artificial foundation, upon 
which the concrete blocks forming the dock walls were 
built. The total length of these walls is 4,520 feet, 
enclosing a space of fifty-two acres with berthing ac- 
commodation for thirty large vessels. A sea wall was 

also built to reclaim thirteen acres from the shallow 
24 



370 A HISTORY OF PERU 

waters of the bay, for bonded warehouses. There are 
eighteen steam cranes for loading and unloading, a 
triple line of railway along the whole length of the 
dock wall, lighthouse, capstans, and supplies of fresh 
water at eight places for shipping. Other sea-ports have 
been improved to keep pace with increasing trade. 
At Pisco, where there is a heavy surf, Mr. Wheel- 
wright completed an iron pier seven hundred yards in 
length, in 1859. At Eten the new mole on screw piles 
is eight hundred 3^ards long. At Pacasmayu an iron 
pier was constructed six hundred yards long, another 
at Salaverry two hundred and fifty 5'ards long, and 
another at Mollendo. 

The work of opening up the vast forests to the east- 
ward of the Andes by means of the Huallaga, Ucayali, 
and Maranon, Peru's great fluvial highways, was pushed 
forward by President Balta, but was commenced before 
his time. As early as 1861 two steamers were built in 
London for Castilla's government, called the "Pastaza" 
and "Morona," one hundred and eighty feet long, five 
hundred tons, and with engines of one hundred and 
sixty horse power. At the same time two others were 
ordered for exploring the rivers, called the "Napo" 
and the "Putumayu. " Materials for a factory on the 
banks of the Maranon were also sent out. The two 
larger steamers went up the Amazon through Brazilian 
territory, and reached Peruvian waters in 1863. They 
began to run from Yurimaguas on the river Hullaga to 
the Brazilian frontier station of Tabatinga, a distance 
of seven hundred and forty miles, touching at eleven 
ports. The colony of Yquitos was founded on the left 
bank of the Maranon, and became the central station 
for Peruvian navigation on Amazonian waters. Here 
the factory was established, and houses were built for 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 371 

officials and artisans. The traffic by means of these 
steamers created a thriving trade which has a tendency 
to increase. Yquitos is the capital of the department 
of Loreto, and the centre of exploring enterprise. In 
1866, the steamer "Putumayu" ascended the Ucayali 
with a view to finding the nearest navigable point to 
Lima. She entered the tributary called the Pachitea, 
and reached the Mayru, at a place called Puerto Par- 
do, being the nearest point to Lima ever reached by a 
steamer on Amazonian waters. In 1870 the river Pe- 
rene was explored by a steamer called the "Tambo, " 
to find the nearest navigable point to Tarma, and work 
of the same kind was done in other directions. These 
energetic measures to complete the examination of the 
fluvial highways of the Peruvian montafia were intended 
to prepare for the establishment of regular traffic, open- 
ing up a busy and lucrative trade in the not distant 
future. 

The energetic president embellished the capital, 
built a new bridge over the Rimac, and made the port 
of Ancon fashionable by selecting it for his marine 
residence. He also conceived and carried out the idea 
of a national exhibition at Lima. The scheme was 
sanctioned in 1869, and the building was commenced 
in 1872, from the plans of Don Manuel A. Fuentes, 
the historian of Lima and an eminent statistician. The 
space allotted to the palace and other buildings and to 
the gardens, was forty-eight acres, and the works were 
proceeded with. General Vivanco undertaking the office 
of president of the executive commission. The palace 
itself is a handsome building of adequate size, and it 
contained many objects of interest. The noble picture 
of the obsequies of Atahualpa by the Peruvian artist 
Monteros was among its finest ornaments, and there 



372 A HISTORY OF PERU 

were many other objects of native art and industry, 
including the admirably sculptured figures of alabaster, 
by the Indians of Ayacucho. The exhibition was opened 
on the ist of July, 1872. 

At the close of Balta's term of office, Don Manuel 
Pardo, who had been minister of finance under Prado, 
was chosen as his successor. The day was approaching 
for the resignation of the greatest constructor of public 
works that had ever filled the presidential chair, and 
everything was expected to pass off peacefully, when a 
terrible catastrophe ended Balta's career. His great 
mistake, so far as his own fate is concerned, was the 
preferment of worthless relations. He gave colonelcies 
to four brothers who were low born and full of vulgar 
ambition. These were Tomas, Silvestre, Marceliano, 
and Marcelino Gutierrez, members of a muleteer's 
family in the valley of Majes, near Arequipa. In the 
afternoon of July 22nd, 1872, the great square of Cuzco 
was suddenly occupied by a battalion of soldiers, at the 
head of which was one of the four brothers whom 
Balta had raised from the dust. Another brother, Sil- 
vestre, with a few men, then forced his way into the 
president's study and, with a revolver at his head, 
obliged him to enter a coach. He was driven to the 
convent of San Francisco, where troops were then quar- 
tered, locked up in a room, and allowed to see no one. 
Fortunately Don Manuel Pardo was warned in time, 
and escaped on board a Peruvian man of war. Next 
day Tomas Gutierrez issued a proclamation in which 
he declared himself supreme chief. On the 26th, Sil- 
vestre Gutierrez went to the railway station to proceed 
to Callao, and was shot dead by the mob. The news 
struck the other brothers with panic, and Marceliano 
went to San Francisco and murdered the president. 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 373 

He then marched his mutineers down to Callao Castle, 
but a shot from a rifle ended his existence. Tomas 
was killed by the mob, and the youngest brother Mar- 
celino was got safe into prison. He retired to a little 
farm near Arequipa, living in the deepest seclusion. 
The people called him" El Sobrado" or "the Survivor. " 
President Pardo once kindly offered to restore him to 
his rank. He declined, but when the Chileans invaded 
Peru, he joined the force under Colonel Leyva, and 
fought gallantly for his country. This wretched mutiny 
was a mad attempt which could only have been con- 
ceived by hair-brained and very ignorant men. The sat- 
isfactory aspect of the affair is the promptitude with 
which all classes of the people rose on the side of law 
and order. 

Don Manuel Pardo was inaugurated as constitutional 
president of Peru on the 2nd of August, 1872. Born 
at Lima on the 12th of August, 1834, and educated at 
vSan Carlos college, he was the son of Don Felipe 
Pardo y Aliaga, a distinguished statesman of the inde- 
pendence, a scholar and a poet. His mother belonged 
to the ancient family of Lavalle. After leaving San 
Carlos, young Manuel studied at the universities of 
Santiago de Chile, Barcelona, and Paris. He returned 
from Europe in 1853, and passed some time in charge 
of the estate of Villa near Chorrillos, belonging to the 
Lavalles, and in the valley of Xauxa. In 1858 he mar- 
ried a daughter of the eminent Lima merchant, Don 
Felipe Barreda, by a sister of Don Joaquin Osma, the 
Peruvian minister at Madrid. 

Manuel Pardo, in conjunction with other young men, 
founded a periodical called the "Revista de Lima," in 
1858, which reached to seven volumes. He contributed 
articles on political economy, and a series of studies on 



374 A HISTORY OF PERU 

the climate and capabilities of the valley of Xauxa. 
In 1858 he was under-secretary of finance. He estab- 
lished the first bank in Lima, and in 1864 he again 
visited Europe, as financial agent in London. From 
1866 to 1868 he was minister of finance, and in the 
latter year Pardo became director of the "Sociadad de 
Benificencia" in Lima, at a time of great sickness ; and 
he received a public vote of thanks and a gold medal 
in recognition of his services. In 1869, he was head 
of the municipality of Lima, and did much to improve 
the sanitary condition of the town. He was the first 
civilian who became president. His minister of for- 
eign affairs was Don Jose de la Riva Aguero, son of 
the first president of the republic. 

President Pardo found the country on the verge of 
bankruptcy, owing to the reckless expenditure of his 
predecessor, and of the late finance minister, Don 
Nicolas de Pierola. A sum of ;£2, 450,000 was needed 
to pay the annual interest of the foreign debt. Pardo 
struggled with the difficulty nearly to the end of his 
term of office, but the disaster was inevitable, and the 
payment of interest on the loans ceased in 1876. One 
immediate cause of the inability of Peru to meet her 
debt was the fall in the price of guano, owing to the 
large production of artificial manure in Germany. All 
the new president could do, was to curtail expenditure 
in every department. He also strove to obtain a larger 
revenue from the nitrate deposits in Tarapaca, and in 
1875 the state was authorized to buy up all the nitrate 
works and establish a monopol3^ The predatory am- 
bition of the Chilean oligarchy had long threatened 
disaster both to Peru and Bolivia. The Chileans looked 
upon the wealth derived from the nitrate deposits with 
a jealous and greedy eye. Their threatening encroach- 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 375 

ments alarmed their neighbors, and in February, 1873, 
a treaty was signed between Peru and Bolivia, guar- 
anteeing the integrity of their respective territories 
against aggressors, but reserving the right of each of 
the contracting parties to decide whether any particu- 
lar injury received by the other came within the mean- 
ing of the previous article ; and no action was required 
until such casus fcederis had been declared. All concilia- 
tory measures, including arbitration, were to be tried, 
before proceeding to hostilities ; and it was now pro- 
vided that other American states should be invited to 
join the defensive alliance. An additional article pro- 
vided that the treat}^ should be kept secret so long as 
the contracting parties, by common accord, did not 
consider its publication necessary. 

The Chileans used this purely defensive treaty, by 
which arbitration is provided for before there can be 
a casus foederis, as a pretext for war : but this was in 
the dark days that were to come, when the good Pres- 
ident Pardo had passed away. 

The government of Pardo was actively engaged in 
promoting useful measures and reforms in every de- 
partment. The Chinese immigration had become a 
question of growing importance Chinamen first began 
to arrive in Peru in 1849, and 2,560 landed between 
that year and 1853. In 1856 the immigration was pro- 
hibited by a law of congress, but it was again author- 
ized in i86i,and the emancipation of the negro slaves 
in the coast valleys created a demand for more reliable 
free labor. Between 1861 and 1872, the number of 
Chinamen that arrived was 58,646. They contracted 
to serve for eight years, receiving wages and food. 
Unfortunately the business of emigration fell into the 
hands of private speculators whose sole object was to 



376 A HISTORY QF PERU 

make money out of the traffic. There was kidnapping, 
over-crowding, and disgraceful treatment. ' But the 
ships taking coolies from Macao to Callao were of two 
classes. Those of the Lima Emigration Company were 
large and well equipped, with sufficient space for each 
emigrant and wholesome rations. Those of private 
speculators, generally French, were often disgraceful 
in every respect. 

In 1874 the Portuguese at Macao abolished contract 
emigration altogether and this prohibition was intended 
to confine it to direct emigration from China under 
government superintendence, and on fixed conditions 
arranged by treaty. This was the desire of President 
Pardo, and in October, 1873, congress enacted that all 
contracts for coolies should be registered in the pre- 
fecture of Lima, and that their fulfilment should be 
enforced. Two Asiatics, as agents of police and inter- 
preters, were attached to the sub-prefecture of every pro- 
vince in which contract emigrants were employed. At 
the expiration of a contract the master is bound to re- 
port that the laborer is free, on pain of a fine, and if 
the man desires to return to his own country the intro- 
ducer is bound to find him a free passage. 

Thus Pardo made sincere endeavors to ensure jus- 
tice and proper treatment to the Chinese laborers in 
the coast valleys of Peru. He also determined to take 
steps with regard to their engagement and passage, by 
direct negotiations with the Chinese government. Don 
Aurelio Garcia y Garcia, a captain in the Peruvian navy, 
was selected for this important mission, and the instruc- 
tions for his guidance were embodied in a very able 
state paper by Don Jose de la Riva Aguero, the min- 
ister of foreign affairs. The envoy was to secure free- 
dom for Chinese subjects to emigrate, and to give 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 377 

guarantees for good treatment during the passage, and 
for the strict performance of contracts. He was to 
propose the adoption of rules which were agreed to 
between England and China in March, 1866, and to 
make the spirit of those rules the basis of his negoti- 
ations. After signing a treaty between Peru and Japan, 
Captain Garcia y Garcia arrived at Pekin in December, 
1873. The treaty between Peru and China was signed on 
June 26th, 1874. Free emigration was allowed under 
certain conditions, and a Chinese commissioner was to 
visit Peru and inspect the condition of his countrymen. 
The commissioner found many Chinamen, who had 
served out their indentures, engaged in business or in 
domestic service. There were two prosperous Chinese 
firms in Lima receiving large consignments, a Chinese 
club and theatre, and two Chinese benevolent societies. 
Captain Garcia y Garcia conducted these difficult nego- 
tiations with ability and success. 

President Pardo paid great attention to statistics. A 
census was taken in 1876 on a better system and with 
more care than had ever been attempted before. The 
result gave the population at 2,673,075 souls. A sta- 
tistical department was established at Lima under the 
superintendence of Don Manuel A. Fuentes, divided 
into branches for census, territory, archives, movement 
of population, death rate, judicial and police, com- 
merce and agriculture. The first publication of the 
department was a work on the political divisions of the 
republic, with an enumeration of cities, towns, and vil- 
lages; also tracing the history of the political divisions, 
since the conquest. A map of Peru was also engraved 
under the superintendence of Professor Raimondi ; and 
the president founded a geographical society which 
came to an end on the breaking out of the Chilean 



378 A HISTORY OF PERU 

war, but which has since been revived under happier 
auspices. 

Another useful measure was the official publication 
of the great work on Peru by Dr. Antonio Raimondi. 
This accomplished geographer and naturalist was a 
native of Milan and came to Peru in 1850. He vis- 
ited every part of the republic, surveying, collecting, 
and annotating during a course of years. The first 
fruits of his labors was the publication of a topographi- 
cal account of the department of Ancachs and of its 
mineral wealth, in 1873. Three volumes of his great 
scientific work on Peru subsequentl}^ appeared ; and 
do honor alike to Professor Raimondi and to the Pe- 
ruvian government. He has devoted his life to his 
adopted country, and Peru has known how to value so 
precious a gift. 

Many other enlightened measures were adopted by 
Pardo with a view to promoting and improving edu- 
cation, inviting immigration, facilitating commercial 
transactions, and increasing the number and efficiency of 
lighthouses. In order to utilize the exhibition palace 
he founded a fine art society with the duty of main- 
taining and administering the buildings and garden, and 
conducting the work of the museum, and of the schools 
of painting, sculpture, and music. The salons of the 
exhibition palace were destined for the establishment 
of a general museum, a school of painting and sculp- 
ture, and a hall of music. Most valuable results would 
have been secured from the wise and enlightened ad- 
ministration of President Pardo, if all progress had not 
been checked by the fell work of a destructive war. 

The navy received careful attention from the gov- 
ernment of Pardo. It had been increased b}^ two iron- 
clads since the Spanish aggression, but no vessels had 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 379 

been ordered after the retirement of General Pezet. 
The turret ship "Huascar" was built at Birkenhead by 
Messrs. Laird in 1866, being two hundred feet long, i, 130 
tons, and three hundred horse power. The armor around 
her revolving turret was only five and one-half inches 
thick, and there was a protecting belt of four and one- 
half inches. She was armed with two twenty-inch Arm- 
strong three hundred pounders and two forty pound 
Whitworths. The "Independencia" was a broadside 
iron-clad of the old type, built at Blackwall in 1865, 
two hundred and fifteen feet long, 2,004 tons, and five 
hundred and fifty horse power, with only four and one- 
half inch armor. She was armed with twelve seventy 
pounders on the main-deck, and two one hundred and fifty 
pounders, with some smaller guns, on the upper deck. 
The" Union" was a wooden corvette armed with twelve 
seventy pounders and capable of going thirteen knots ; 
the "Pilcomayu" a smaller vessel, was armed with two 
seventy pounders, four forty pounders and four twelve 
pounders. There were also two antiquated old mon- 
itors built in the United States called the "Atahualpa" 
and " Manco Capac, " and purchased in 1869. They 
had ten inches of iron on their turrets, and were armed 
with two fifteen inch smooth bore Rodman guns : but 
they were merely floating batteries, unfit for work at sea. 
A naval school was established at Callao in 1870, 
under the superintendence of Captain Camilo Carrillo, 
who was professor of astronomy at the universit}^ It 
was on board the "Maranon" and was to consist of 
thirty students. In 1874 a preparatory naval school was 
added on board the "Meteoro" with one hundred and 
forty students, also under Captain Carrillo ; and a school 
of bo3^s was established on board the old frigate "Apu- 
rimac, " for a course of three years training in seamanship 



38o A HISTORY OF PERU 

and gunnery. In 1878, Captain Carrillo went, with some 
of his students, to Payta, to observe the passage of 
Mercury over the sun's disc. This observation was 
especially interesting to Peruvian naval officers, because 
it was the same by which Humbolt fixed the longitude 
of Lima in 1802. 

Pardo made considerable reductions in the army for 
the sake of economy. Whereas in 1870 it numbered 
12,000 men, in 1875 the nominal strength was 4,500 
men. consisting of three battalions of infantry of five 
hundred each, three regiments of artillery making a 
total of 1,000 men, and two brigades of cavalry. He 
re-established the militia called "guardia nacional, " 
which suppressed Pierola's revolt, and which was after- 
ward the basis of the army of defense against the Chil- 
eans, 

The mischievious sedition of Nicolas de Pierola, 
who had been minister of finance under Balta, disturbed 
the peaceful course of Pardo's administration. In 1874 
he chartered an English steamer called the "Talisman," 
embarked men in Chile and arrived off Pacasmayu. 
The captain and some of the crew were arrested, but 
the steamer got away and proceeded southward to Pa- 
cocha. Here she was captured by the "Huascar, " but 
not before Pierola had landed with his men. Passing 
through Moquegua, he entrenched himself on the 
heights of Los Angeles, the very spot where the pat- 
riots under Miller were worsted by Canterac and his 
royalists in 1822. The president was prompt and en- 
ergetic. He took the field in person, accompanied by 
General Buendia, reached Moquegua in December, 
and encamped at Charsaques, a village at the foot of 
Los Angeles. The insurgents had a thousand men, 
Pardo 1,300. He detached Captain Montero of the navy 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 381 

to attack Pierola in the rear, and when he calculated 
that Montero had about completed the movement, he 
ordered an attack in front. Having fully attained his 
object, which was to draw off attention from the march 
of Montero, he withdrew his men. Then Montero fell 
on the rear of the rebels, and completely routed them. 
Pierola escaped into Bolivia, and the insurrection was 
at an end. 

During Pardo's time the palace was given up for 
public offices, tiie president residing in his private 
house, where he was always accessible to all ranks of 
his countrymen. His term of office came to a close in 
August, 1876. The candidates to succeed him were 
Colonel Prado and Admiral Montero, the former being 
successful. Don Manuel Pardo, after his resignation, 
retired for some time from Peru. Returning to Lima 
he continued his career of public usefulness and was 
elected, by congress, president of the senate. On the 
i6th of November, 1878, he was • assassinated, by an 
obscure wretch, on the steps of the senate house. He 
was forty-four years of age. The first civilian who had 
been elected head of the state, Pardo was the best 
president that Peru has ever known. He achieved a 
great social and political object in developing public 
spirit among the working classes in Peru. Before his 
time political interests had been controlled by one class 
of the community only. 

Colonel Don Mariano Ignacio Prado became con- 
stitutional president of Peru on the 2nd of August, 
1876, with General Don Luis de la Puerta as first, and 
Don Jose F. Canevaro as second vice-president. In 
the following year the restless Pierola again created a 
disturbance. He found partisans in two hair-brained 
young fellows named Bernabe and Manuel Antonio 



382 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Carrasco, who seized the iron-clad "Huascar" by a 
ruse at Callao, and took her down to Cobija, where 
Pierola embarked. On May 27th, 1878, they seized the 
port of Pisagua in Tarapaca, but the rest of the Peru- 
vian squadron went in chase, and there was an engage- 
ment which lasted about two hours. When darkness 
came on the "Huascar" decamped, having been declared 
a pirate by President Prado. The British Admiral de 
Horsey in the flag-ship "Shah," determined to try and 
seize the "pirate" on the ground that she had boarded 
an English steamer and taken some one out of her. 
On the 29th of May, the "Huascar" encountered the 
"Shah" and "Amethyst" off Pacocha. Admiral de Hor- 
sey's summons to surrender was indignantly rejected 
and the "Shah" opened fire which was returned rather 
wildly. But the young Carrascos, considering their 
total want of experience, did not handle the ship badly, 
and at all events got her safely out of action at dusk. 
The "Huascar" ran down to Iquique and, the fun being 
over, she surrendered to the "Independencia" on May 
2gth. The matter was not treated very seriously and 
Pierola was allowed to return to Chile. 

In this year the approach of the dreadful war which 
was soon to spread desolation and misery over Peru 
loomed like a black cloud on the southern horizon. 
Since the war of 1839 power in Chile had continued in 
the hands of the same party, in spite of much discon- 
tent and two sanguinary civil wars in 185 1 and 1859. 
Lima had been crowded with Chilean exiles of the lib- 
eral party, including Santa Maria, who took such a 
leading part in urging Peru to declare war with Spain. 
Santa Maria was the ablest statesman in Chile and in 
spite of his strong liberal views, he was induced to 
take office under Pinto, who was elected President of 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 383 

Chile in 1876, and was less reactionary than his pred- 
ecessors. It was Santa Maria who guided the warlike 
policy of the Chileans at this time. Ever since the 
desert of Atacama and the province of Tarapaca began 
to yield great wealth, their possession had been cov- 
eted by the Chilean oligarchy. Such possession would 
add enormously to the resources of the Chileans, and 
they were quite unscrupulous as to the means of ob- 
taining it. Force would be necessary. Two powerful 
iron-clads of the newest construction had been ordered. 
They were designed by Reed, and built at Hull in 1875 
— sister ships named the "Almirante Cochrane" and 
the "Blanco Encalada" of three hundred and fifty-six 
tons and 2,920 horse power. They carried six nine- 
inch Armstrong twelve ton guns, some light guns, and 
two Nordenfelt machine guns. The armor was nine in- 
ches thick at the water-line, and six to eight inches 
around the battery. Both were fitted with twin screws. 
Chile also had two sister corvettes, the "Chacabaco" and 
"O'Higgins," armed with three one hundred and fifty 
pound seven ton Armstrong guns, the "Magallanes, " 
"Abtao," "Esmeralda" wooden corvette, and "Covadon- 
ga" gun boat. The "Huascar" and "Independencia" of 
the Peruvian navy were obsolete, and their armor was 
worse than useless against new Chilean ships, for the 
Chilean shells would penetrate and burst inside the 
Peruvian iron-clads. The Chilean army had also been 
carefully trained for active service, and was supplied 
with the latest inventions and improvements. 

Thus being admirably prepared, the Chileans began 
by encroachments on the territory of their Bolivian 
neighbor. The limits of the South American republics 
were, by general agreement, fixed according to the nti 
possidetis of 1810. On this principle the boundary of 



384 A HISTORY OF PERU 

the Bolivian province of Atacama extends to tbe north- 
ern limit of Chile. That northern limit was clearly 
'defined before 1810, and was fixed at a place called El 
Paposo in 25° 2' S. It is thus defined in the ninth law 
of the Indies {Titulo 15. Book ii.), and in the official 
description of Dr. Cosme Bueno. It is shown on the 
well known map of de la Rochette, based on the survey 
of Malespina, and was accepted by the Chileans them- 
selves before they began to covet the territory of their 
neighbor. In the official map of Claudio Gaye, Chile 
ends at Paposo ; and when Admiral Fitz Roy executed 
his surveys, enquiries were made of the Chilean author- 
ities as to the position of the boundary and it was placed 
to the south of 25°S. It was only when the great value 
of the Atacama minerals was discovered that any ques- 
tion was raised. Then Chile claimed the 23rd parallel. 
Her boundary was the 25th. Next she offered to take 
the 24th as a concession on her part, having no more 
right to the 24th than to the 23rd. This pretended con- 
cession was only made on the condition that the value 
of half the custom dues from minerals exported between 
the 24th and 23rd parallels was paid to her. Having 
by this encroachment established such complicated 
relations with her neighbors as that pretexts for a dis- 
pute could easily be found, the completion of her scheme 
could be effected when it was found convenient. In 
1879 all the Bolivian ports, Antofagasta, Cobija, and To- 
capilla were seized and occupied by Chilean troops. 

Under the treaty of 1873 Peru offered her good offices 
as a mediator. She had no suspicion that war with 
her was also intended, with a view to the conquest of 
Tarapaca. Don Jose Antonio Lavalle was sent to San- 
tiago, and the pretence of negotiations was kept up 
with him by Santa Maria for a short time. Grievances 



HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 385 

against Peru were then alleged, and complaints were 
made that the nitrate monopoly would injure Chilean 
interests, and that the Chilean government was kept in 
igorance of the treaty of 1873 between Peru and Boli- 
via. As these were the only pretexts for war that were 
alleged, it will be well to consider them in this place. 
To the first the Chilean historian, Vicuna Mackenna, 
himself gives the answer — "It is necessary to confess" 
he says, "that in adopting any course relating to a Pe- 
ruvian product the Peruvian president was within his 
right according to the law of nations, because he was 
free to legislate on domestic affairs as seemed best for 
the interests of his country." The provisions of the 
treaty of 1873 had been public since 1874 certainly, for 
the Chilean minister at La Paz, Carlos Walker Martinez 
acted on his knowledge of them and referred to them in 
a book published in 1876. Moreover the Argentine 
Republic was officially invited to become a party to the 
treaty and the question was publicly discussed in 1877. 
These pretexts were, therefore, illusory. No others 
were even hinted at. Lavalle was allowed to offer sug- 
gestions for settling the dispute between Chile and 
Bolivia by arbitration, and he made proposals which 
would have been doubtless acceptable, if a settlement 
had been desired. But Chile had no such desire. On 
the contrary she intended to fix a quarrel on Peru also. 
Santa Maria suddenly made three demands, to be 
treated as an ultimatum. Peru was at once to cease 
all defensive preparations, to abrogate the treaty of 
1873, and to declare her neutrality. No nation with a 
spark of self-respect could possibly accept such terms. 
They were made, because it was impossible, and be- 
cause the Chileans were now ready to enter upon their 
career of depredation. Senor Lavalle was dismissed 



386 A HISTORY OF PERU 

and the Chilean government declared war upon Peru 
on the 5th of April, 1879. 

The Chilean minister afterward confessed the truth 
that "the nitrate territory of Tarapaca was the real and 
direct cause of the war." The declaration of war in 
April, 1879, was caused by the knowledge that the 
Peruvian ships stood no chance against the new iron- 
clads of Chile. The intent of Chile was conquest. 
The Peruvians fought in defence of their native land, 
the noblest and best cause in which a man can draw 
his sword. 

Just before the war, in 1878, the value of Peruvian 
exports was ^47,000,000: the largest item being 6,000, - 
000 cwts. of nitrate, worth $17,500,000: then sugar 
^13,000,000 (2,000,000 cwts.) :wocl $4,000,000 : precious 
metals about $4,500,000: guano $3,600,000: Peruvian 
bark, skins, etc. $1,500,000. The customs, taxes, rail- 
ways, and other sources of revenue produced $8,860,- 
000; nitrate and guano $9,000,000; total $17,860,000. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE CHILEAN INVASION GLORIOUS FIGHT OF THE "hUAS- 

CAR"- — CAMPAIGNS OF TACNA AND TARAPACA 

It was a saying of old General Castilla that when 
Chile bought one ship, Peru ought to buy two. It is 
certain that a successful invasion or defence of Peru de- 
pends upon possession of the sea. This was as true 
in the days of Gonzalo Pizarro and Lord Cochrane as 
it was in 1879. Yet, although Chile had an overpower- 
ing preponderance, the Peruvian fleet delayed the in- 
vasion for six months. This result was mainly due to 
the heroism and skill of one man. 

Miguel Grau was the son of a Colombian officer whose 
father was a merchant at Cartagena. The name points 
to Catalonian ancestry, and in the veins of the naval 
champion of Peru flowed the same blood as gave life 
and vigor to the fleets of Aragon. His father, Juan 
Miguel Grau, came to Peru with General Bolivar and 
was a captain at the battle of Ayacucho. His comrades 
returned to Colombia in 1828, but the attractions of a 
fair Peruvian induced the elder Grau to settle at Piu- 
ra, and there young Grau was born in June, 1834. The 
child was named after the patron saint of his native 
town. His father held some post in the Payta custom 

house, and the son was shipped on board a merchant 

387 



388 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ship at the very early age of ten years. He knocked 
about the world as a sailor boy, learning his profession 
thoroughly by hard work before the mast, for the next 
seven years, and it was not until he was eighteen that 
young Grau obtained an appointment as a midshipman 
in the, then, very humble navy of Peru. He was on 
board the "Apurimac" when Lieutenant Montero mut- 
inied in the roadstead of Arica against the government 
of Castilla, and declared for Vivanco. The lad proba- 
bly had no choice but to follow the fortunes of the in- 
surgents until the downfall of their leader ; besides 
Montero was his fellow townsman, being also a native 
of Piura. As soon as the rebellion was suppressed 
in 1858, Grau once more returned to the merchant 
service, and traded to China and India for about two 
years. 

Miguel Grau was one of the best practical seamen 
in Peru, well known for his ability, readiness of re- 
source, and courage, as well as for his genial and 
kindly disposition. When, therefore, he rejoined the 
navy in i860, he at once received command of the 
steamer "Lersundi," and soon afterward was sent to 
Nantes with the responsible duty of bringing out two 
new corvettes, the "Union" and "America." He attained 
the rank of captain in 1868, and commanded the 
"Union" for nearly three years, handling her with great 
skill during the Spanish attack in the channel of Abtao. 
In 1875, he was a deputy of congress for his native 
town and an ardent supporter of the government of 
Don Manuel Pardo. He was married to Dona Dolores 
Cavero, a Peruvian lady of good family. 

Grau commanded the "Huascar" when the Chileans 
declared war. He conveyed President Pardo to Arica, 
where an army was assembling, in May, 1879, with the 



THE CHILEAlSf INVASION 389 

"Huascar" and "Independencia, " and then proceeded to 
Iquique, where the Chilean corvette "Esmeralda" and 
gun-boat "Covadonga" were blockading the port. The 
"Huascar" rammed and sank the corvette, while her 
consort pursued the gun-boat ; but following too close 
in shore the "Independencia" ran upon some rocks 
and became a total wreck. This fatal accident was a 
death blow to the cause of Peru. The strength of the 
Chilean fleet, before unequal, was now overpowering. 
Complete preponderance was only delayed for a time 
by the brilliant exploits of Grau. He exchanged a few 
shots with the "Blanco Encalada, " but easily evaded 
her, and returned to Callao on June 7th, 1879. The 
"Huascar" had now become the sole hope of Peru. 
While her gallant commander out-maneuvered the supe- 
rior forces of the enemy, the coasts were safe from seri- 
ous attack. For nearly four months this feat was 
achieved, and Peru was safe-guarded by her heroic son. 
During July, the "Huascar" was engaged in harassing 
the enemy, and keeping him in a constant state of 
alarm and preparation. Accompanied by the "Union" 
the "Huascar" even made a successful cruise along 
the coast of Chile, and captured the large Chilean trans- 
port "Rimac, " with a regiment of cavalry on board. 
The "Rimac" was armed as a cruiser, and thus in- 
creased the small Peruvian navy. The successes of 
Grau, who had been promoted to the rank of admiral, 
excited great discontent in Chile. The two iron-clads 
were ordered back to Valparaiso to undergo a thorough 
overhaul of hulls and machinery. The capture of the 
"Huascar" was now the main object of the Chilean 
government ; for she effectually prevented the prosecu- 
tion of those schemes of depredation and conquest 
upon which the predatory little republic had entered. 



390 A HISTORY OF PERU 

On the ist of October, 1879, a squadron consisting 
of two iron-clads and several other war ships, all care- 
fully and thoroughly refitted, was despatched from 
Valparaiso for the purpose of forcing the "Huascar" to 
fight, single-handed, against hopeless odds. After 
their cleaning the speed of the Chilean ironclads was 
superior to that of the "Huascar." The Chilean ad- 
miral ordered his fastest ships, the "Cochrane," "O'Hig- 
gms, " and "Loa" to cruise about twenty-five miles off 
the land, between Mexillones Bay and Cobija, while 
the "Blanco," the "Covadonga" and "Matias Cousifio" 
patrolled the coast between Mexillones and Autofa- 
gasta. The "Huascar" and "Union" were cruising to- 
gether in the vicinity of Antofagasta on the 8th of 
October. Early in the morning the weather was thick 
and foggy. As the dawn gradually broke the mist 
lifted and they were able to make out three distinct 
jets of smoke appearing on the horizon to the north- 
east, near Point Angamos, the western extremity of 
Mexillones Bay. Admiral Grau signaled the presence of 
the enemy to his consort, and then hauled up to the 
north-west. Soon the light enabled him to recognize 
the iron-clad "Blanco," the "Covadonga" and "Matias 
Cousino, " but he was gradually increasing his distance 
from his pursuers, when at 7:30. a. m. three more jets 
of smoke came in sight, in the very direction in which 
he was steering. It was soon discovered that they 
were issuing from the funnels of the iron-clad "Coch- 
rane," the "O'Higgins" and the "Loa." Gran's situa- 
tion now became critical in the extreme. Escape was 
barred in every direction, for it was evident that the 
"Huascar" must be intercepted before she could cover 
the distance between her position and safety. The 
admiral fully realized his danger. Seeing that escape 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 391 

was impossible, he resolved to make a bold dash at his 
enemies, and fight his way through, or perish in the at- 
tempt. He prepared his ship for action, while he or- 
dered the "Union" to exert her utmost efforts to escape 
as, with the "Huascar" gone, she would be the only 
effective vessel left to Peru. This, in consequence of 
her great speed, she had no difficulty in accomplishing. 
At twenty-five minutes past five the first shot was 
fired from the "Huascar," at the "Cochrane's" turret, 
at a distance of 3,000 yards. It fell short, so did the 
second and third shots, but the fourth took effect. Up 
to this moment the guns of the "Cochrane" had been 
silent. She now opened fire, and the battle was kept 
up with spirit, on both sides, until the end. The 
"Huascar's" turret was worked by hand, not by steam, 
and the fourth shot from the "Cochrane" struck it, 
temporarily deranging the revolving apparatus. The 
ships had closed considerably, and Grau made an at- 
tempt to ram his antagonist, but the maneuver was 
frustrated by the quickness of the "Cochrane's" move- 
ments. Being fitted with twin screws she was able to 
turn in half the space that was required by the "Huas- 
car. " Several subsequent attempts to ram also proved 
unsuccessful. The ships were now engaging at dis- 
tances from three hundred to one hundred yards, an in- 
cessant mitrailleuse and rifle fire being kept up on both 
sides. At g -.^^ a. m. just half an hour after the action had 
commenced a shell from the "Cochrane" struck the pilot 
tower of the "Huascar" and exploded. Admiral Grau 
and one of his lieutenants were inside. They were 
blown to atoms. Only a portion of a leg of the brave 
admiral was afterward found. He fought and died 
off Point Angamos. His deeds of patriotic devotion 



392 A HIS TORY OF PERU 

will never be forgotten in Peru, and Grau is known in 
history as the "Hero of Angamos. " 

Up to the moment of the bursting of the fatal shell 
the "Huascar" had been fought with skill and daring ; 
but the firing on both sides was indifferent, a small per- 
centage of the shots taking effect. Shortly after lo 
A. M. the "Blanco," which had been pounding up astern 
ever since daylight to close with the enemy, reached 
the scene of action and on coming within six hundred 
yards, fired her first shot at the doomed "Huascar." 
Don Elias Aguirre, the senior officer, had taken com- 
mand on the death of the admiral, but a shell from the 
"Blanco" took his head clean off. Don Manuel Car- 
bajal, the next in seniority, was severely wounded by 
the explosion of the same shell which killed Aguirre. 
No sooner had Lieutenant Rodriguez succeeded to 
Carbajal, by virtue of his rank than he, too, was added to 
the long list of slain. He was succeeded by Lieuten- 
ant Enrique Palacios, who, before the end of the action, 
was in his turn severely wounded by a fragment from 
a shell. The command then devolved on one of the 
junior officers, Lieutenant Pedro Garezon. 

By this time the "Huascar" was quite disabled. Her 
steam steering gear had been rendered useless by the 
same shell which killed the admiral, and from that 
time the ship had to be steered by relieving tackles 
hooked below. A shot had also entered the turret, in- 
juring one of the guns to such an extent as to render 
it useless, besides killing and wounding several men. 
The turret was also disabled. Still the unequal con- 
test was maintained. Several attempts were made, on 
both sides, to bring the matter to an issue by ramming, 
but all failed. At the short ranges the effect of the 
machine gun fire was very deadly, the Gatling-guns in 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 393 

the "Huascar" top being silenced by the more effective 
lire of the Nordenfelts, with which the Chilean iron- 
clads were armed. At 11. a. m., one hour and a half 
after the commencement of the action, the flag of the 
"Huascar" was at length hauled down. Out of a com- 
plement of one hundred and ninet3^-three officers and 
men, with which the "Huascar" began the action, 
sixty-four were killed and wounded. The "Cochrane" 
fired forty-six and the "Blanco" thirty-one rounds, out 
of which only twenty-four took effect on board the 
"Huascar," but the shells burst after penetration, show- 
ing that the weak armor of the "Huascar" was worse 
than useless. The "Huascar" fired forty rounds, 
her guns being served with great rapidity, but there 
was little precision in the aim, owing to want of prac- 
tice. 

The "Huascar," an obsolete vessel with thin armor 
that the enemy's shell could penetrate, was opposed to 
two iron-clads with thick impenetrable armor, so far as 
she was concerned, fitted with twin screws, with Norden- 
felt machine guns, and great superiority in size, weight 
of metal, and number of men, and also to four wooden 
vessels, six to one. The odds against her were over- 
whelming, and the action fought by Admiral Grau 
and his heroic companions was most glorious. It is a 
very bright episode in the struggle which the Peruvians 
made in defence of their fatherland. 

The captain of the "Blanco," with some feeling of re- 
spect for brave enemies, said in his despatch that the 
combat ended after a resistance which did honor to the 
valor of the captain, officers, and crew of the "Huas- 
car." The Chilean government actually made him 
expunge this passage from his official despatch, and 
substitute the words — "after a tenacious and vigorous 



394 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

resistance." This incident explains much that hap- 
pened afterward and shows the spirit in which 
the Chilean governing class was entering upon the 
war. 

The sea was now under the absolute control of the 
Chileans. Under such circumstances it becomes almost 
an impossible task to defend such a coast line as that 
of Peru. It is a rainless region, and its fertile valleys 
occur at long intervals between vast tracts of waterless 
deserts. In Tarapaca these deserts cover nearly the 
whole area, while in rear of the coast region rise the 
stupendous Cordilleras of the Andes. With the ports 
blockaded, the movement of troops from one threatened 
point to another is impossible within any required time. 

It was unknown at what point the invasion ^vould 
commence. The capital might be attacked, or Tacna, 
or the coveted province containing the nitrate deposits. 
It was believed that Tarapaca would be attacked first, 
because the difficulties of a defending force are there 
most formidable. Great efforts were, therefore, made by 
President Prado to concentrate a force in Tarapaca be- 
fore communications by sea were cut oft. Including 
the Bolivian allies the number of men in Tarapaca, by 
the end of May, was 9,000, but the cavalry was not pro- 
perly mounted, and the field artillery was antiquated. 
The commander-in-chief was General Juan Buendia, 
with Colonel Belisario Suarez as his chief of staff ; 
both men of staunch loyalty. But the most noteworthy 
soldier among the defenders of Tarapaca, was Colonel 
Andres Avelino Caceres, the future president. He com- 
manded the second division. His second in command, 
Juan Bautista Zubiaga had hurried from Cuzco with 
his men, marching over the wildest pass in the Andes. 
Cut off from the rest of Peru by trackless deserts, the 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 395 

forlorn hope in Tarapaca was as isolated and as un- 
equally matched as the "Huascar" had been, and like 
the gallant crew of the "Huascar," it was prepared to 
fight and die for the fatherland. 

The invading army consisted of 10,000 men, includ- 
ing eight hundred and fifty admirably mounted cavalry, 
and thirty-two long range field guns, embarked on 
board four men-of-war and fifteen transports. A very 
gallant resistance was made to their landing at Pisagua ; 
the Chilean men-of-war sending six hundred and ten 
shells into the ranks of the defenders, and 4,380 rifle 
shots. The shattered survivors were led away by Gen- 
eral Buendia, and Pisagua became the scene of most 
disgraceful excesses, the drunken Chilean soldiery rob- 
bing, burning, and destroying. This was on the 2nd of 
November. The Chileans advanced to a hill called San 
Francisco, where they had communication with the sea 
shore by rail, and abundance of fresh water. Buendia 
was in extreme difficulty. Want of provisions and 
water necessitated immediate action. He resolved to 
attack the enemy, 10,000 men posted on the hill, be- 
hind a row of thirty-two field guns, with cavalry massed 
below. The defenders advanced against this formida- 
ble host in three parallel columns, and in perfect mili- 
tary order. The sun was burning fiercely. The Peru- 
vians dashed up to the guns ; Colonel Espinar of Cuzco 
leading them on. The Chilean artillery men were fall- 
ing back. At that supreme moment a ball pierced the 
head of Espinar. The hero of Cuzco had fallen with 
his feet under the invader's gun. Then a close mass of 
Chilean infantry dashed down with their bayonets at 
the charge. The men of Cuzco and of Ayacucho long 
stood firm., so firm that two of them were transfixed at 
the same moment that they transfixed their antagonist. 



396 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Overpowered by numbers they at length j[ell back, 
and retreated down the hill, disputing every inch of 
ground. They were not followed. It was five in the 
evening. The Peruvian dead numbered two hundred, 
the wounded seventy-six. Suggestive proportion! 
Colonel Suarez called together the reserve and the 
surviving heroes of the assault, at midnight of that sad 
i8th of November, and retreated to the village of Ta- 
rapaca, the birthplace of brave old Castilla, near the 
base of the cordilleras. They were left to retire unmo- 
lested, without cavalry or artillery, without food, with- 
out stores or resources, without a base. It was indeed 
a forlorn hope! 

Suarez had galloped to the ravine of Tarapaca in 
advance, to collect food for his famished troops, leav- 
ing Colonel Bolognesi in command, a brave and ac- 
complished officer of Arequipa. That veteran brought 
them safely to the green oasis. Few soldiers in the 
world could have fought so valiantly, and then have 
endured the extremities of thirst, hunger, heat and fa- 
tigue as these poor Indians had done. Without sup- 
plies and without chance of succor, General Buendia 
felt that his men had done all that honor could require, 
and he prepared to retire from the province. The 
Chilean general, after hesitating for several days, 
sent a carefully selected force to attack them, consist- 
ing of 2,000 picked infantr};^, one hundred and fifty 
cavalry, and one hundred and fifty artillery with ten 
long range field guns. The plan was to effect the com- 
plete destruction of the Peruvian troops at Tarapaca 
by three separate attacks, one up the ravine itself, and 
the other two along the ridges on either side. The 
27th of November's dawn saw the three columns ad- 
vancing. The unsuspecting Peruvians were resting 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 397 

under the willow trees, with arms piled, ready to re- 
sume their retreat. Suddenly a muleteer galloped up to 
Colonel Suarez, and reported that the enemy was close 
upon them. In another moment the sky line of the 
ridges on either side of the ravine was broken by mov- 
ing columns of armed men. Buendia and Suarez made 
their dispositions on the instant. They seemed to be 
surrounded. The division of Caceres was to climb the 
ravine side and attack the enemy actually in sight, 
Bolognesi was to protect the south side, and Gen- 
eral Buendia was to defend the ravine. The first di- 
vision had already marched, and a messenger was des 
patched with orders for it to return. Colonel Suarez, 
on his white horse, led the division of Caceres up the 
steep hill by a precipitous winding path. On the 
summit, with rifles at the ready, and four Krupp guns, 
stood the Chilean foe. Caceres and Zubiaga were in 
the front, and there was a shout of triumph as they 
reached the crest. The Chileans formed a semi-circle 
and opened a withering fire, expecting to hurl the Pe- 
ruvian's back and down the precipice. Then the men 
of Cuzco, instead of falling back, charged with Zubiaga 
at their head. One ringing cheer and Zubiaga fell to 
rise no more, like Espinar at San Francisco, under the 
muzzle of a Chilean gun. He died in the moment of 
victory. Seeing their leader fall, the Indians set their 
teeth and charged steadily and in earnest. The Krupp 
guns were captured and for an hour the Chileans con- 
tinued to give wa3^ For once the two sides were on 
equal terms, and the best men would win. At noon 
more Krupp guns were captured ; and the Chileans were 
beaten all along the line. They fled toward a sand 
hill in the desert, and were saved from total rout by 
their cavalry. Meanwhile Buendia gallantly held his 



398 A HISTORY OF PERU 

own in the ravine, but at a terrible cost. Many offi- 
cers fell around him, young Pezet, grandson of the 
president, was severely wounded, one hundred and 
seven dead bodies were on one spot. The little band 
of survivors defended the place with desperate tenac- 
ity, and the Chileans in the ravine began to fall back 
at the same time as their comrades on the heights. At 
this juncture the return of the Peruvian first division 
completed the victor}^ 

This was a Peruvian victory. They had driven the 
Chileans back at all points, had retained the whole 
battle-field, had captured eight guns and one standard, 
and could now continue their retreat unm.olested. The 
Chilean loss amounted to six hundred and eighty-seven 
killed and wounded. The Peruvians had nineteen 
officers and two hundred and thirty-six men killed, six- 
teen officers and two hundred and sixty-two men wound- 
ed. The valiant little army, terribly thinned in its 
heroic efforts to save the province of Tarapaca, began 
its sad and weary march to Arica, with fifty-two Chil- 
ean prisoners, on the following day. They arrived at 
Arica on the i8th of December. Sorrow and mourning 
spread over the valleys of the Andes. Yet there was 
consolation. The lost ones were not rapacious invad- 
ers. They fell in a just and holy cause — the defence 
of their native land. 

The loss of the "Huascar" and then of Tarapaca, 
made President Prado despair of success, with the 
means at his disposal. He handed over the command 
at Tacna and Arica to Admiral Lizardo Montero on 
the 26th of November and returned to Lima. There 
he came to the extraordinary resolution of abandoning 
his post and going to Europe to raise a loan and pur- 
chase iron-clads. Leaving the executive in charge of 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 399 

the vice president, General La Puerta, he sailed for 
Panama on the 17th of December. His term of office 
would have ended on the 2nd of the following August. 

Lima was in a state of excitement and anger at his 
unaccountable desertion. The troops broke out in 
mutiny, and when General La Cotera, the minister of 
war, tried to quell it, his followers were fired upon. 
The armed populace then declared openly for revolu- 
tion. This was an opportunity not to be missed by 
the restless Pierola. He placed himself at the head 
of the movement, the vice-president was persuaded to 
resign, and Don Nicolas de Pierola was declared su- 
preme chief of the republic on December 23rd, 1879. 

Pierola comes of a Catalonian stock. His family had 
settled at Camana on the coast of Peru, and there he 
was born on January 5th, 1839. His father, with the 
same name, was a man of science, a botanist of some 
eminence, and director of the Lima museum. He 
died in 1857, leaving his son to be educated at the 
College of San Toribio at Lima. The younger Nicolas 
became a lawyer, Balta made him minister of finance 
in 1869, and since the death of that ill-fated president, 
he had been incessantly intriguing for power. He was 
a charlatan, but it was no time for civil dissensions 
when the enemy was at the gate, and all Peruvians, 
in this moment of danger, rallied round the de facto 
head of the state, whoever he might be. On this Pi- 
erola had probably counted. Among his ministers 
were Don Nemecio Orbegoso, a son of the former pres- 
ident, and Colonel Miguel Iglesias, a landed proprie- 
tor at Caxamarca, who took charge of the war depart- 
ment. 

In the beginning of 1880, the Chileans, who now 
had three iron-clads, began the blockade of the ports of 



400 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Arica and Callao. They had also bought an Irish pig 
boat, called the "Belle of Cork," which they re-named 
the "Angamos. " She was a fast steamer and they 
armed her with one i8o pound, eight inch Armstrong 
gun with a range of 8,000 yards, far out of reach of 
any Peruvian gun, so that she could bombard an enemy, 
while she herself remained perfectly safe. With her 
formidable weapon she was a terror to the batteries of 
Arica and Callao. But, after doing a large amount of 
mischief along the coast, this gun one fine day recoiled 
so violently that it disconnected itself from the carriage, 
and went overboard. It had been fired three hundred 
and eighty times in ten months. 

Arica is an open roadstead protected to the south 
by a lofty cape called the Morro, and the rocky island 
of Alacran. The town stretches along the beach from 
the foot of the Morro, and the surrounding country is 
desert and sandy, though there is a fertile valley along 
the water course of the Azapa, which reaches the sea 
to the north of Arica. The railroad to Tacna runs 
forty-eight miles northward. The Peruvians had ten 
rifled guns on the Morro, and ten in forts north of the 
town under the command of Captain Camilo Carrillo. 
The harbor defence monitor, "Manco Capac, " under 
Captain Jose Sanchez Lagomarsino, was moored under 
the forts. There was also a small torpedo brigade on 
the island of Alacran, under Lorencio Prado, a son of 
the president. At first the Chileans ventured close 
in, but the "Huascar" was twice hit with serious con- 
sequences, and the "Magallanes" was rather severely 
mauled by the "Manco Capac," after which the long 
range fire of the "Angamos" was resorted to. The Pe- 
ruvian navy was reduced to one wooden corvette, the 
"Union." In March, 1880, it was resolved that she 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 401 

should attempt to run the gauntlet of the whole Chil- 
ean fleet, and throw supplies into Arica. On the 17th 
the gallant little "Union," commanded by Captain Vil- 
lavicencio, set out from Callao, eluded the Chilean 
fleet, and safely landed six Gatling guns, several thous- 
and rifles with ammunition, and clothing for the troops 
at Arica. The iron-clads steamed in to attempt her 
destruction, but would not venture within range of the 
guns on the Morro. Their fire was not very effective, 
and they soon moved northward to intercept the "Union" 
on her return. Captain Villavicencio, closely observing 
their movements, slipped out of the anchorage, steamed 
full speed to the south and, having got a good start 
of his pursuers, returned safely to Callao. He had land- 
ed the stores in spite of the whole iron-clad fleet of Chile. 
On the loth of April, 1880, the Chilean fleet com- 
menced the blockade of Callao, which was kept up for 
nine months. Besides the two old historical round 
towers of Callao Castle, the defences consisted of two 
armored turrets, the "Junin" and "Mercedes," each with 
two five hundred pound Armstrongs, a 1,000 pound 
smooth bore Rodman on the spit of land to the south, 
forts "Ayacucho" and "Santa Rosa" with two five 
hundred pound Blakeleys, and six batteries with smaller 
guns of little use. The "Atahualpa" harbor defence 
monitor, the "Union," and three school ships were 
moored inside the Darse?ia. Thus the desolating work 
continued, and now the Chileans had arrived to extend 
havoc and destruction over this thriving and important 
commercial sea-port. Pierola devoted his attention to 
the organization of a torpedo brigade, and to the con- 
trivance of engines for the destruction of the blockad- 
ing ships. On May loth the Chileans bombarded the 

town of Callao with four hundred projectiles, and sue- 
26 



402 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ceeded in sinking one of the school ships. * They also 
added two swift torpedo boats, fitted with outrigger tor- 
pedoes, to their squadron, called the "Janequeo" and 
"Fresia. " They were armed with Hotchkiss machine 
guns. These, with three smaller boats, the "Guacaldo, " 
"Colo-colo, " and "Tucapel, " were used to keep 
watch over the Peruvian ships and boats at night. On 
May 25th, on a pitch dark night, the "Janequeo" and 
"Guacaldo" suddenly found themselves close to a Peru- 
vian steam launch, manned by a few soldiers, with a 
mitrailleuse, and commanded by Lieutenant Gal- 
vez, son of the minister of war who was killed in the 
action with the Spanish fleet. Closely chased by the 
Chilean boats who failed in the management of their 
torpedoes. Lieutenant Galvez threw a one hundred 
pound case of powder on the deck of the "Janequeo" 
and exploded it by firing his revolver. She filled and 
sank. The boat of Galvez sank also, and he was taken 
prisoner, with his surviving men, by the "Gaucaldo." 
The Peruvians also succeeded in blowing up a Chilean 
armed transport, and the gun boat "Covadonga. " 
Later in the course of the blockade, the Chilean ad- 
miral threatened to bombard the defenceless towns of 
Chorrillos, Ancon, and Chancay, if the "Union" was 
not surrendered to him. He was told that the ship 
in question was in Callao harbor, that he had better 
come and take her, and that, as for the threat of bom- 
barding defenceless towns, it was worthy of the man- 
ner in which the Chileans were carrying on the war. 
The threatened bombardments were actually carried 
into execution, to the disgrace of the invading navy. 
The Chileans had now conquered and occupied the 
coveted nitrate province, the annexation of which was 
the object of the war, and they had destroyed the Pe- 



l^^^^t^-gl^J^^^^'^'IPF ^ 




Battle of Tacna. 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 403 

ruvian fleet. All reasonable pretext for further opera- 
tions, involving bloodshed and destruction, had ceased 
to exist. The continuation of such work was unneces- 
sary for the invader's object. But a nation that once 
enters upon such a career will not readily desist. The 
conquerors of Tarapaca determined to spread their 
desolating inroads over the Peruvian departments of 
Tacna and Moquegua, and to destroy the allied army 
assembled at Tacna. The plan was for the invading 
forces to effect a landing to the northward, cut off 
Tacna from her communications, and then fall upon 
the allies in their isolated position. With complete 
command of the sea, and superiority in every military 
point of view, except personal bravery, this was not a 
difficult undertaking. In the end of February, 1880, a 
force of 14,000 men was put on shore at Ylo and Paco- 
cha. Ylo and Moquegua are connected by a railway, 
and a small Peruvian force under Colonel Andres Ga- 
marra, a son of the former president, occupied the 
heights of Los Angeles above Moquegua, with the vil- 
lage of Torata in its rear. Here Canterac repulsed 
the patriots led by Miller in 1823, and it was here that 
President Pardo routed Pierola, in 1874. The Chilean 
general imitated the tactics of Pardo, by sending a 
detachment to make a long detour and attack Gamarra's 
rear. For more than an hour the Peruvians, though 
overmatched and surrounded, held their ground, but 
they eventually retreated on March 22nd. The Chil- 
ean general's object in occupying Torata was to close 
one road by which Tacna could communicate with the 
rest of Peru. The distance between Ylo and Tacna is 
eighty miles : a desert intersected by the two narrow, but 
fertile valleys of Locumba and Sama. The Chilean 
General Baquedano set out from his camp at Hospicio, 



404 A HISTORY OF PERU 

on the Ylo and Moquegua river, on the 27th. of April, 
and encamped near Buena Vista in the Sama valley. 

The Peruvian army at Tacna was in command of 
Admiral Montero. It consisted of the remnant of the 
heroes of Tarapaca, with such recruits as had since been 
collected. The total number of fighting men, includ- 
ing the Bolivians under General Campero, did not ex- 
ceed 9,000, with defective artillery, poorly mounted 
cavalry, and no transport. The Chileans had 14,000 
men, including batteries of Krupp guns and well 
equipped cavalry. General Campero, the president of 
Bolivia, who commanded in chief, took up a defensive 
position outside Tacna, on a ridge defended on the 
flanks by steep ravines, with a sloping glacis in front. 
Each soldier was provided with a sack to fill with sand, 
as a protection against rifle fire. 

Basquedano advanced to the attack at 10 a. m., open- 
ing a tremendous fire from his long twelve pound 
Krupp guns which have a range of 4,000 yards, cutting 
up and demoralizing the defenders of the position long 
before their few short range guns could return the fire. 
The Chilean infantry, formed in four divisions of 
2,400 men each, were then led to the assault, the ar- 
tillery continuing its plunging fire over their heads. 
The weakest point was held by the Bolivians. They 
stood their ground bravely for a long time. At length, 
decimated by the terrible fire, they gave ground. The 
young volunteers of Cochabamba, "Libres del Sur" as 
they called themselves, were almost cut to pieces. 
Campero sent up reserves in support, and for a moment 
there was a flash of hope. The Chilean column wav- 
ered, and was hurled down the slope to the point where 
the assault commenced. But the advantage could not 
be maintained, owing to a protecting charge of cavalry, 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 405 

and to a renewal of the artillery fire. For two hours 
the Bolivians stood their ground against hopeless odds, 
and it was not until near two in the afternoon that they 
finally gave way. Montero, with the survivors of the 
victory of Tarapaca, also made a gallant stand, reso- 
lutely facing the artillery fire, and repelling charge after 
charge. The Chileans had lost 2,128 killed and wound- 
ed before the defenders of their country were over- 
whelmed. The slaughter was most grievous, the in- 
vaders butchering the wounded in cold blood, with 
long knives. Campero and the Bolivians retreated in 
good order. Montero retired by way of Torata, after 
one hundred and forty-seven officers had fallen. Sad 
and heart-broken, the gallant knot of survivors strove 
to encourage each other, but their anguish could not 
be repressed altogether. Some expression of it was 
wrung from them. "I confess, " wrote Colonel Caceres, 
"that I had the weakness to w^eep over so terrible a 
disaster. " 

The allied arm}^ had fought a good fight. "Some of 
the corps covered themselves with glory," wrote the 
Chilean historian. Their inferiority in numbers, in 
experience, and above all in artillery and cavalry, told 
fatally against them. If there had been anything like 
equality in these respects, the heights of Tarapaca tell 
how different would have been the result. 

The Chileans occupied Tacna, and commenced oper- 
ations for the capture of the sea-port of Arica. The 
town had a population of 3,000, and to the south of it 
is the Morro, a cliff seven hundred feet high, with a 
perpendicular sea face. Two sand-bag forts, each 
with four small guns, were constructed on a ridge lead- 
ing to it, while on the Morro itself there was a fort 
containing nine heavy guns. North of the town there 



4o6 A HISTORY OF PERU 

were three batteries close to the sea shore, -with the 
monitor "Manco Capac" moored off them. The defence 
of Arica was entrusted to the brave Colonel Boiognesi, 
one of the heroes of Tarapaca. On the Morro was 
Captain Moore, the ill-fated captain of the lost "Inde- 
pendencia, " with two hundred and fifty of his ship's 
company. He was in plain clothes, refusing to wear 
a uniform until the loss of his ship had been atoned 
for by good service. By his side was the gallant young 
Alfonso Ugarte, a wealthy native of Tarapaca who had 
flown to arms when his country was invaded. The 
garrison consisted of three hundred artillery appren- 
tices, and about 1,400 volunteers, besides the men of 
the "Independencia. " 

On the 5th of June the Chilean artillery opened fire 
and the fleet commenced a bombardment, answered by 
the ''Manco Capac" and shore batteries. One shell from 
the Morro entered a port on board the iron-clad ''Coch- 
rane," ignited a charge of pebble powder, and disabled 
twenty-eight men. The forts were but slightly defended 
on the land side, and on the 7th the}^ were carried b}^ as- 
sault, as well as the sand-bag defences on the ridge. 
The Chileans, in overpowering numbers, then entered 
the fort on the Morro, killing ruthlessly and giving no 
quarter. The Chileans intimated to Boiognesi to surren- 
der, but he refused and resolved to perish. He was quite 
aware of his fate, for his men were very few. There 
stood the accomplished Boiognesi, the brave Moore, the 
youthful Ugarte and several others. The Chileans 
slaughtered them without compunction. Boiognesi was 
pierced by a rifle bullet, and his brains were beaten out. 
Ugarte was killed and the body hurled over the cHff into 
the sea. The heart-broken mother offered a large re- 
ward for even a scrap of the clothes of her heroic son. 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 407 

but nothing was ever found. The whole affair was a 
massacre. As many as six hundred of the garrison were 
bayoneted, most of them in cold blood. About one 
hundred and fifty ran down the steep side of the Morro 
and reached the town, but they were followed and shot 
down. Captain Lagomarsino sank the ''MancoCapac," 
by opening all the valves. 

After the capture of Arica, the United States minister 
reported that the Chileans "behaved more like a band 
of roving savages, than like a regularly organized soldier}^ 
of a country calling itself civilized. They murdered 
the wounded. They found a number of fugitives in 
the British Consulate, dragged them out into the square 
and shot them, and then sacked the house. It was not 
war but wholesale murder." 

In September, 1880, the Chilean government deliber- 
ately organized an expedition of 2,000 men, commanded 
by an Irishman serving in the navy, named Patrick 
Lynch, to proceed to the Peruvian ports north of Lima, 
for the purpose of destroying private property, seizing 
merchandise, and damaging public works. These in- 
structions were contrary to the usages of civilized war- 
fare. It is important to record a passage in the declara- 
tion of the Chilean government, at the opening of the 
war. "There will be no senseless destruction of prop- 
erty, which benefits no one and redounds to the injury of 
ourselves, there will be no criminal violence against 
defenceless people." This insincere statement was either 
intentionally written to deceive, or conveyed no meaning 
to the minds of those who wrote it. 

The history of Lynch's expedition was written by a 
Chilean, and will best be given in his own words. "The 
Chileans sent an expedition to carry the torch of havoc, 
of desolation, and of provocation to implacable war and 



4o8 r* A HISTORY OF PERU 

eternal rancour, along the coast of Peru. This crusade 
of violence and destruction is that which is known as the 
expedition of Lynch. Its object was to desolate the rich 
valleys and factories of the north of Peru. It is impos- 
sible to conceive an undertaking more unreasonable, even 
leaving its barbarity out of consideration. Although 
destined against Peru in appearance, it was in reality in- 
jurious to ourselves. We were reviving the days of 
pirates in our midst, when the whole world, by common 
consentjhas agreed to put an end to them. Events have es- 
tablished the truth of this, and the ample justification for 
the protest which the author of this history, in his posi- 
tion as a senator, made against these enterprises. One 
great evil arising from them is the employment of our 
soldiers on work which will not advance their morality 
nor our civilization. Another is that such deeds will 
inevitably alienate the sympathies of foreign countries 
when they become known. 

'Tn the first days of September was commenced the 
fatal, inglorious, desolating expedition which was con- 
fided to Patrick Lynch. It consisted of 2,230 men of all 
arms in two steamers. They left Arica on the 4th. On 
the loth they arrived at Chimbote. Near this port were 
the great estates of Don Dionisio Derteano, called 
Puente and Palo Seco. Here were railways, artificers' 
shops, thirty-six houses of dependents built of iron and 
wood, sent out from the United States, the house itself 
was a palace splendidly furnished, there was a factory 
with elaborate machinery for producing sugar, beautiful 
gardens, stables containing valuable horses and a foal (sire 
''Gladiator") which had cost ^1,500 in England, and 
large works for the rice crops, with houses and excellent 
barns. The principal buildings had been completed in 
1876. Lynch landed and proceeded at once to these 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 409 

peaceful and flourishing centres of industry. He 
demanded ^100,000 to be paid in three days. The sum 
not being paid, the scene of destruction commenced. 
The steam machinery was blown up with dynamite, as 
well as the iron pillars of the noble buildings. The still, 
the machinery for pressing the cane, the boiling houses, 
were all burned. The house with all its rich furniture, 
large mirrors, books, pianos, pictures, became a 
smouldering pile of ruins. The fields, with their crops, 
were desolated and became vast calcined surfaces. A 
few choice books from the library, and the most valuable 
horses alone were saved from destruction, to be purloined 
by the marauders. Next the valuable sugar estate of 
San Nicolas de Lao, with its machinery and buildings, 
was destroyed. The custon house of Chimbote was 
burned, locomotives were blown up with dynamite, while 
cavalry destroyed the telegraph line. The Chilean 
soldiers killed a flock of five hundred sheep, which they 
could not carry off. 

* 'These valleys in the north of Peru produced over 
80,000 tons of sugar in 1879. The expedition of Lynch 
destroyed this industry between September 4th and 
November loth, 1880. After the work of destruction was 
completed at Payta, the same odious scenes of destruc- 
tion were repeated at many other points in the coast val- 
leys and at the ports." 

This is the opinion of a Chilean. Yet it is a historical 
fact that the Chilean government not only approved of 
the expedition, so diametrically opposed to their own 
declaration, but promoted the officer whom they em- 
ployed, thus sanctioning every detail of his proceedings. 

At the very time when the Chileans were thus em- 
ployed, the United States ministers to Chile and Peru had 
come to Arica on an errand of peace. They induced the 



4IO A HISTORY OF PERU 

Chilean government to consent to a conference with 
Peruvian commissioners on board the United States 
corvette ''Lackawanna." Captain Aureiio Garcia y 
Garcia, and Dr. Antonio Arenas were appointed on the 
part of Peru. The commissioners met on the 22d of 
October, 1880. The Chileans demanded the cession of 
Tarapaca, payment to Chile of $20,000,000, return of the 
captured ''Rimac," the abrogation of the Treaty of 1873, 
retention of Tacna and Arica until the conditions were 
complied with, and an obligation on the part of Peru 
never to fortify Arica. Senor Arenas said that annexa- 
tion through conquest were recognized in other times 
and in distant regions, but that they had never before 
been invoked in Spanish America, having been con- 
sidered incompatible with republican institutions. Cap- 
tain Garcia y Garcia proposed that the questions in dis- 
pute should be referred to the arbitration of the United 
States. The Chilean representatives peremptorily 
refused, showing their determination to make a reason- 
able settlement impossible. 

For the Chileans had resolved still further to extend 
the horrors of war, by sending an expedition against the 
capital of Peru. The invaders actually possessed all they 
demanded, and yet they still persisted in their sanguinary 
career. An expeditionary force consisting of 30,000 men 
of all arms was organized, transports were purchased or 
chartered, and the resources of Chile were taxed to the 
utmost for objects of mischief and destruction. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE CHILEAN INVASION FALL OF LIMA — CONTINUED RE- 
SISTANCE BY CACERES. PEACE MADE BY CHILE WITH 

GENERAL IGLESIAS FALL OF THE CHILEAN NOMINEE — 

CACERES ELECTED PRESIDENT 

Lima was threatened with all the horrors of war. 
The population of the capital of Peru exceeded 100,000 
souls, and it included 15,000 foreigners. Lima was 
full of foreign merchants' houses, of contractors and 
speculators, of French and Italian shops, and of in- 
dustrious mechanics. A great and busy city, throbbing 
with thousands of different aims and desires, with 
manifold interests, gay and pleasure seeking in one 
phase, wrapped in official and business cares in another. 
A might}^ and complicated machine, not lightly to be 
mangled and broken, without heavy guilt resting on 
the destroyer. 

That destroyer was almost at the gates. The gay 
and thoughtless youths, students, clerks, and mechan- 
ics, all were suddenly called upon to face death in 
defence of their homes, all that could bear arms. The 
national army was destroyed, and the conquerors were 
landing on the coast. The army could do no more. It 
had fought well and bravely far away in the south. It 
was scattered in ghastly piles along the deserts of Ta- 
rapaca. It whitened the sand hills of Tacna. It sleeps 



412 A HISTORY OF PERU 

with Bolognesi on the Morro of Arica. Pierola strove 
to call up another army. The venerable Buendia was 
by his side, Admiral Montero escaped from Tacna, Su - 
arez and Caceres who had seen the Chilean infantry 
fly before them down the slopes of Visagro, Canevaro 
and Iglesias — all good men and true. But how few! 
If 2,000 veterans could gather around the surviving 
chiefs it would be all ; but there were barely as many 
as that. Every male resident of Lima between six- 
teen and sixty must bear arms. Alas! decrees cannot 
create an army. Crowds could be sent to the sand 
hills to fight bravely and die. They were patriots, 
but not soldiers. There were to be four divisions com 
manded by Suarez, Caceres, Davila, and Iglesias. Gen- 
eral Silva was chief of staff. All were called to arms. 
The young men of fashion formed a corps under Don 
Juan de Aliaga, Count of Luringancho, the lawyers 
under Dr. Unanue, journalists under the wealthy 
Derteano, whose property was destroyed by the ma- 
rauder Lynch, Dr. Milon Duarte arrived from the 
mountains with a thousand Indians of Xauxa, the free- 
dom loving Morochucos came pouring in from Ayacu- 
cho, numerous Italians and other foreigners enrolled 
themselves to strike a blow in defence of their adopted 
country. 

Two lines of defence were selected, when it became 
certain that the invaders would land to the south of 
Lima. One passed along the line of arid sand hills on 
the southern verge of the valley of the Rimac from 
the Morro Solar, a cliff which overhangs the fashiona- 
ble watering place of Chorrillos on the sea, to the base 
of the Cordillera. The time was very short, and it was 
only possible to dig a few ditches and throw breast- 
works up in front of the guns. For the line was six 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 413 

miles long and broken by barren hills. A second line 
was prepared just outside the village of Miraflores, 
which was surrounded by handsome villas, and only 
six miles from Lima. There were many unserviceable 
^uns, thousands of gallant young fellows, who were 
not soldiers, ready to die for their country, and a rab- 
ble. Yet it was right that a stand should be made. 
It was very sad to think of those thousands falling in 
heaps, in a fruitless attempt to bar the way, in a last 
vain effort to save the capital. Yet by the memory of 
such achievements do nations, rising from the ashes 
of adversity, learn the lessons which bring prosperity 
and strength. 

The Chilean army consisted of 24,956 men and 1,202 
officers, the newest types of Armstrong and Krupp guns, 
seventy -seven mountain guns, eight Gatlings and 
two Nordenfelts, all well equipped. Commissariat, 
ambulance corps, carriers, and camp followers brought 
the numbers up to 30,000. One division landed at 
Pisco, the rest at Curayaco, about three miles north of 
Chilca. The march from Pisco was accompanied by 
devastation and slaughter, the burning of towns and 
destruction of property. Having assembled his army 
at Lurin, the Chilean general assaulted the first line 
of defence on the 23rd of January, 1881. The resist- 
ance of the people of Lima was steady and tenacious. 
The right wing of 5,000 men, under Iglesias, was at 
last driven back, and retreated up the Morro Solar. 
The Chileans then carried the defences in front of the 
farm of San Juan at the point of the bayonet, and there 
was a frightful slaughter of the volunteers under Can- 
evaro. But the division of Caceres, after suffering 
heavy loss, retreated in good order toward Chorrillos. 
Among the dead was Colonel Reinaldo Vivanco, eager 



414 A HISTORY OF PERU 

and zealous, and brave to audacity. The name will 
recall the heroic death of a galJant son, as well as the 
restless ambition of the accomplished father. Near 
him fell his captain, young Felipe Valle-Riestra. The 
boy had recently returned from a course of stud}^ in 
France, and had no inclination for the career of a 
soldier. But when his country was invaded, he flew to 
arms. On that fatal morning he stood face to face 
with the foe. In his right hand was the sword inher- 
ited from his uncle. Admiral Guise, which that officer 
had worn when a midshipman at the battle of Trafal- 
gar, "the sword of Trafalgar" as it was called in the 
famil}^ It received fresh honor from the youth who 
wore it in the lines of San Juan. Valle-Riestra was 
among the first to fall, mortally wounded. A faithful 
servant bore him out of the press, to die in great agony 
some days afterward. The night before he sent a note 
which reached his mother. "Be confident that I shall 
bear myself valorousl}', and that I shall not fall back a 
step." He was wounded where he stood, at dawn. 
He had not fallen back a step. Vivanco and Valle- 
Riestra rest side by side in the Panteon of Lima. 
Another lad who was killed at San Juan, was young 
Castilla, only son of the president. He fell, sword in 
hand, pierced by Chilean bullets, when in the act of 
rallying his brigade. "He was a noble young man" 
wrote a foreign friend, "a dashing soldier, a true and 
enthusiastic patriot, cheery and hospitable, and excel- 
ling in all field sports." 

Having carried the line, Baquedano occupied Chor- 
rillos with one division of his army, while the other 
assaulted the Morro Solar. After a desperate and gal- 
lant defence Iglesias surrendered. 

The Chileans gave no quarter. They bayoneted not 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 415 

only all the wounded, but the defenceless civilians in 
Chorrillos, including the respected old English physi- 
cian, Dr. Maclean, whom they foull}^ murdered. The 
town was burned amidst hideous scenes of slaughter 
and rapine. Dreadful as were the atrocities committed 
by the Chileans during the day, they were as nothing 
compared with the horrors enacted after dark. There 
were no more Peruvians of either sex to kill, so the 
drunken soldiers turned upon each other. No less 
than forty of them were thus killed, fighting with 
senseless fury, or being burned by the flames they had 
themselves kindled. In the battle of Chorrillos 2,000 
Chileans were killed and wounded. Of the defenders 
4,000 bodies of the young students and mechanics of 
Lima were scattered along the first line of defence. 

An armistice was arranged, but it was broken by the 
Chilean general, apparently through some mistake, and 
he attacked the second line of defence at Miraflores on 
the 15th of January. There were five redoubts on the 
line, mounted with artillery. In one was Deputy San- 
chez with his followers, in the next was Ribeiro with 
the students and journalists, then came the merchants 
under Manuel Lecco. A fort with two guns between 
Miraflores and the sea was defended by Caceres. The 
Chileans, 13,000 strong, began the assault at 2 125 p. m. 
wdth a cannonade of the fort held by Caceres, from 
artillery on shore, and from the whole Chilean fleet. 
Caceres made a brilliant defence, and it was not until 
all his ammunition was expended that the enemy at 
length got possession ; the defenders falling back to 
reinforce the centre. Meanwhile the Peruvians on the 
right made a desperate attack on the Chilean line, 
Colonels Caceres and Fanning leading. The latter was 
killed. For a moment there was a gleam of hope. 



4i6 A HISTORY OF PERU 

The enemy wavered, but large reinforcements came 
up, and a battery of artiller}/ opened iire. The de- 
fenders were forced back, and their redoubts were car- 
ried at the point of the bayonet. They were filled with 
dead — poor young lads from the desk and the counter, 
students, and men of fashion. In one place there was a 
heap of a dozen Italian youths, who would not see 
their Peruvian friends go forth without helping them— 
lads of the "Garibaldi Legion." Most pathetic was 
the wall of youthful dead which the invading soldiery 
must trample over before the doomed cit}^ could be 
reached. But there were old men as well as young 
among the dead — ^Dr. Pino, a judge of the superior 
court of Puno, aged sixty ; Ugariza, secretary of the 
Lima chamber of commerce; Los Heros, chief clerk of 
the foreign office; Marquez the diplomatist; two edi- 
tors, members of congress, magistrates, landed proprie- 
tors, all dead in defence of their country's capital. The 
defence of the second line was bravely maintained for 
nearly four hours. Caceres received five wounds, Silva, 
Canevaro, and the venerable Vargas Machuca were 
wounded, and a son of Iglesias was killed. Another 
tale of 2,000 dead swelled the number of mourners in 
Lima. 

As soon as resistance ceased, Miraflores was commit- 
ted to the flames, all the countr}^ houses around it were 
sacked and burned, and the lovely gardens uprooted 
and destroyed. Lima, the great city, would have shared 
the fate of Chorrillos and Miraflores if the Chileans 
had had their way. Its rescue from destruction was 
due to the firm stand made by the foreign ministers, 
and still more b}' the foreign admirals. On the 17th 
the Chilean troops took possession of Lima. Its cap- 
ture had cost them 1,299 nien killed and 4, 144 wounded. 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 417 

At Cailao all remaining ships were destroyed to pre- 
vent them from falling into the hands of the enemy — 
the monitor "Atahualpa, " the school ships "Apuri- 
mac," "Meteoro," and "Marafion," the frigate "Union," 
and the steam transports "Rimac, " "Chalaco,"and "Tal- 
isman. " 

During their occupation of Lima the Chileans seized 
the university hall for a barrack, destroying and throw- 
ing away the archives. The public library contained 
50,000 printed volumes and 8,000 priceless manuscripts. 
It was appropriated as another barrack, the books be 
ing sold as waste paper, or thrown into the street. The 
pictures and everything of value in the exhibition 
building, the laboratory and appurtenances of the school 
of medicine, all the models and appliances for teaching 
in schools of art, sciences, and trade, and public mon- 
uments were destroyed or carried off. The benches in 
the lecture rooms were cut up, to make packing cases 
for the plunder. The United States minister reported 
that these proceedings were "violations of the rules of 
civilized w-arfare which call for an earnest protest on 
behalf of all civilized nations." Finally, on May 4th, 
1881, they appointd Captain Lynch, the hero of the 
raid along the coast, to be Chilean commandant ac 
Lima. 

Pierola escaped into the interior after the battle of 
Mirafiores, and he assembled a congress at Ayacucho 
in July, but in November he resigned and proceeded 
to Europe, having been in power tor nearly two years. 
At first the Chilean government seemed to be inclined 
to treat, giving out that they would allow a provi- 
sional executive to be formed for the purpose at Lima. 
Some of the leading citizens at the capital held a 
meeting and induced an eminent lawyer to undertake 



4i8 A HISTORY OF PERU 

the thankless task of presiding over such an executive. 
This was Dr. Francisco Garcia Calderon, who was 
born at Arequipa in 1832. His "Dictionary of the 
Jurisprudence of Peru" is a work of great erudition 
and research, and he was legal adviser to several lead- 
ing mercantile houses. The village of Magdalena was 
selected as his residence, he formed a respectable min- 
istr}^, and was installed on March 12th, 1881. Some 
members of the last congress also assembled at Chor- 
rillos in Jul3^ The governm.ent of Calderon was recog- 
nized by the United States, Switzerland, and the Cen- 
tral American Republics. On August 4th, he had an 
interview with the Chilean plenipotentiary, but the 
claims of the invaders were excessive. Hope was en- 
tertained that the United States would offer to medi- 
ate. To prevent this the Chileans abolished the gov- 
ernment of Garcia Calderon on September 28th, 1881, 
and sent him a prisoner to Chile in November, with 
many other leading civilians. A forced contribution 
of $1,000,000 a month was extorted from those who re- 
mained in Lima. During 1882, from custom dues 
alone the plunder amounted to $28,694,000. Fortu- 
natel}^ Admiral Montero, who wisely kept out of the 
Chilean lines, had been elected first vice president, and 
Caceres second vice president, in the government of 
Garcia Calderon. 

Admiral Montero became the constitutional head of 
the state, after the imprisonment of Garcia Calderon, 
and the retirement of Pierola. He established the 
seat of his government at Arequipa and convoked a 
congress. Iglesias was in command in the northern 
departments, Caceres in the center, Suarez and Camilo 
Carrillo at Arequipa. The election for deputies took 
place in all parts of the country not occupied by the 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 419 

enemy, and the congress met at Arequipa in March, 
1883. The United States disapproved of the Chilean 
invasion, but declined to interfere, except with friendly 
advice. President Arthur, in his message to congress 
for 1882, said — "It is greatly to be deplored that Chile 
seems resolved to exact such rigorous terms of peace, 
and indisposed to submit to arbitration the terms of 
an amicable settlement. No peace is likely to be 
lasting that is not sufficiently equitable and just to 
command the approval of other nations." 

The congress of Peru met at Arequipa, and on June 
6th, 1883, elected Dr. Garcia Calderon president, Admi- 
ral Montero first, and General Caceres second vice- 
president. 

The Chileans were engaged, during the remainder of 
their occupation, in the despatch of destructive raids 
into all parts of Peru that could be reached, which 
were conducted on the principles of the notorious 
Lynch expedition. Truxillo, Pacasmayu, Yea and other 
towns were occupied and plundered, a rush was made 
for the silver mines of Cerro Pasco, the people of 
Huanuco were massacred, and a force 5,000 men under 
Colonel del Canto was sent up the railroad to Chicla, 
and occupied the Xauxa valley. But there he had to 
deal with General Caceres. 

Caceres had fought in almost every encounter with 
the Chileans since they landed at Pisagua. He still 
devoted all his energies to resisting the invaders, -be- 
cause he saw no other way of securing a honorable 
peace, and because it was thus that he understood the 
will of the nation. He organized a small army at 
Ayacucho, his native place, and advanced against Canto, 
occupying the town of Pucara on the river Mantaro, in 
February, 1882. The Chileans marched from Huan- 



420 A HISTORY OF PERU 

cayo, and opened a heavy fire on the town from field 
guns and rifles. Leaving one battalion on the right 
bank of the river, to keep the enemy in check while 
he took up a new position on some heights, Caceres 
formed his little force. After a battle lasting five 
hours the Chileans were driven back to their original pos • 
itions, and the Peruvian general retreated unmolested to 
Izcuchaca. The battle of Pucara was glorious to Caceres 
who only had i,8io men and no artillery; against four 
battalions of Chileans with eight field guns. He again 
routed the Chileans at Concepcion on the gth of July, 
1882, and Canto was obliged to retreat to the railway, 
evacuating the Xauxa valley. The Chilean second 
in command, being embarrassed with his prisoners, 
formed them in a line and shot them down, the wounded 
being despatched, in cold blood, with long knives. 

In September, 1882, the Chileans advanced from 
Truxillo to Caxamarca, the home of General Iglesias. 
They demanded ^60,000 from the town, and when 
only ^30,000 could be collected, the}^ set two churches 
and several houses on fire. Hearing that Iglesias was 
at Chota they proceeded to that place, and entirely des- 
troyed it. Plundering as they retired to the coast, 
they collected ^45,620 altogether, from the ruined and 
starving people. 

General Iglesias reflected, about this time, that 
there could be no way to peace save through complete 
submission. But he began to act independently, in- 
stead of remaining loyal to the government. His first 
proposals were coldly received. In October, 1882, he 
issued circulars inviting the northern departments to 
send representatives to Caxamarca, but he met with 
little encouragement, and General Caceres issued a 
counter-circular urging loyalty to the government at 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 421 

Arequipa. Meanwhile the plunder of private citizens 
at Lima proceeded apace. Those who escaped were 
threatened with death, their houses being broken into 
and furniture seized, while the prisoners, many of them 
aged and venerated men, were sent to captivity in the 
unhealthy climates of Chilian and Rancagua. 

In 1883 the Chilean invaders again overran some of 
the interior provinces. General Caceres had a small 
force at Tarma, with which he advanced to Cerro Pas- 
co in May, and continued his march northward in 
search of an invading army commanded b}^ Colonel 
Gorostiaga. That officer fell back to Huamachuco to 
form a junction with some reinforcements coming up 
from the coast. The Chileans then numbered 2,000 
men, while Caceres only had 1,380 under his command, 
besides four hundred brought up by Colonel Recabar- 
ren. Although the enemy had the advantage of num- 
bers and position, Caceres resolved to attack him at 
Huamachuco. 

In the evening of the 8th of July, 1883, General 
Caceres reached the heights to the south-east of Huama- 
chuco, at the same time that Don Jesus Elias, son of 
the great vineyard proprietor at Pisco, brought up a 
body of volunteers from Santiago de Chuco. Colonel 
Secada occupied a height called Cuyulgo, which com- 
manded the town of Huamachuco, while Colonel Reca- 
barren advanced on the left flank. As soon as the 
enemy perceived these movements, he abandoned the 
town, and retired to a hill called Sazon, a lofty and 
strong position to the north, covered with ruins of 
ancient buildings, which he used as entrenchments. 
From his new position he opened a heavy artillery fire 
which continued until night. 

On the gth the artillery fire was resumed, and con- 



422 A HISTORY OF PERU 

tinued thoughout the day. Caceres determined to as- 
sault the Chilean position at dawn on the loth. But 
the enemy forestalled him by coming down the hill, 
and attacking his right. The valor displayed by the 
Peruvian officers and men was above all praise, and 
after a long contested fight, the}^ drove the enemy 
behind their original entrenchments on the heights of 
Sazon. Caceres sent his aides-de-camp in all direc- 
tions to check the advance, while the ammunition of 
the different battalions was replenished. But it was 
impossible to check the ardor of the soldiers, and they 
intrepidly marched against the position on the heights, 
in the face of a deadly fire from the entrenchments. 
When the ammunition failed, they had no bayonets, 
and were forced to retreat. The Chilean cavalry then 
appeared in the rear, and the Peruvians fled in all di- 
rections. All the efforts of Caceres to rally them were 
in vain. General Silva, fighting as a volunteer, was 
killed. Young Leoncio Prado had a leg crushed and 
a ball in his chest. He was carried into a hut, where 
he was killed in cold blood by order of the Chilean 
commander. The Peruvian dead numbered six hun- 
dred, including ten colonels, no quarter being given by 
the invaders, who now overran the northern depart- 
ments. On his retreat from Huamachuco, Caceres, 
accompanied by two officers and an orderl}^, met a de- 
tachment of sixteen mounted Chilean soldiers. He 
saved himself by a feat of cool audacity. He advanced 
alone to the Chilean serjeant who was in charge, men- 
tioned that he was followed by several battalions, gave 
him a safe conduct, and quietly proceeded without 
hindrance. Caceres arrived at Ayacucho, in August. 
1883, where he hoped to organize another force. 

While Caceres was nobly defending his country^ 




Map of Country Surrounding Lima. 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 423 

and fighting the battle of Huamachuco, Iglesias was 
negotiating with the Chileans, with a view to obtain- 
ing peace by submitting to any terms they might de- 
mand. He did this without reference to the consti- 
tuted authorities at Arequipa. Chilean troops placed 
Truxillo and other towns, including the custom house 
at Salaverry, in his power, and on October 20th, 1883, 
his commissioners, Lavalle and Zaldivar, signed a treaty 
at Ancon with the Chilean plenipotentiary Jovino No- 
voa. Iglesias then declared himself president of the 
republic, and he entered Lima on the 25th of October. 
The Peruvian flag was hoisted over the palace, all the 
bells of the cit}' ringing, and the people bareheaded. 
The Chilean occupation of Lima had lasted for two 
years and nine months. Captain Lynch at the head of 
4,000 men proceeded to Chorrillos and Barranca in the 
forenoon of the 22nd, taking everything they could lay 
their hands on. The plunder required 3,000 wagons 
to carry it. Nothing remained of the palace, and 
other public edifices, but the bare walls. They des- 
troyed what they could not take away. 

The Chileans proceeded to hand ever Peru to their 
nominee. Three columns marched to Arequipa, and 
Admiral Montero was forced to retire into Bolivia, 
leaving General Caceres as constitutional head of the 
state, on October 25th, 1883. Dr. Puga rose at Caxa- 
marca and occupied Truxillo, but a Chilean force was 
embarked at Chorrillos and recovered the town for 
Iglesias, who was thus entirely propped in his place 
by Chilean bayonets. Lynch remained at Chorrillos 
until the treaty dictated to Iglesias was ratified by an 
assembly, receiving $3,000 a month for the mainten- 
ance of his troops. The treaty was ratified on March 
8th, 1884. Its terms were as follows : — 



424 A HISTORY OF PERU 

I. Relations of peace and amity were re-established. 

II. Tarapaca was ceded to Chile unconditionally anci forever. 

III. The territories of Tacna and Arica, as far as the river Sama, 
are to be held by Chile for ten years, and it is then to be deter- 
mined by popular vote, whether those territories are to belong 
to Chile or Peru. The country to which they may be annexed 
is to pay $10,000,000 to the other. 

IV. By a decree of February gth, 1882, the Chilean government 
ordered the sale of 1,000,000 tons of guano, the net proceeds, 
after deducting expenses, to be equally divided between the 
Chilean government and the Peruvian creditors. When the 
sale is completed, the Chilean government will continue to pay 
to the Peruvian creditors fifty per cent of the net proceeds of 
the guano actually being worked, until the deposits being 
worked are exhausted. The product of the deposits that may 
hereafter be discovered in the ceded territory to be the exclu- 

/ sive property of Chile. 

V. If deposits of guano are hereafter discovered in territory be- 
longing to Peru, the two governments will jointly determine as 
to the conditions to which each must bind itself in disposing of 
the article, and this holds good as regards the Lobos Islands 
when they are delivered over to Peru, the object being to avoid 
competition between the two governments. 

VI. The Peruvian creditors referred to in Article IV must agree 
to the registration of their documents, and to the other regula- 
tions of the decree of February gth, 1882. 

VII. The obligation of Chile under Article IV is to be observed 
whether the guano be extracted by virtue of the contract for the 
sale of 1,000,000 tons, or by any other contract, or on account 
of the Chilean government itself. 

VIII. The Chilean government, as regards nitrate, does not recog- 
nize lien of any nature whatsoever that may effect the terri- 
tories acquired by this treaty. 

IX. The Lobos Islands to be held by Chile until the exportation 
of the 1,000,000 tons of guano referred to in Article IV and VII 
is completed, and then to be restored to Peru. 

X. The Chilean government agrees to cede to Peru the fifty per 
cent of net proceeds of Lobos Islands guano, corresponding to 
the said government. 

Chile thus gained the object of her war. She ac- 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 425 

quired the nitrate province, and repudiated all the ob- 
ligations connected with it. The nitrate "was hypoth- 
ecated to the creditors of Peru who were thus defraud- 
ed by the conquerors. Chile got the coveted manure, 
and with it she acquired a large increase of wealth. 
But she demoralized her army and navy by the way in 
which she carried on the war, and lost the respect of 
her neighbors. The congress of Venezuela thus ex- 
pressed the general opinion. "Chile, by invading the 
territories of Peru and Bolivia, and spreading desola- 
tion and death over them, pretends to resuscitate the 
absurd right of conquest, and by committing repeated 
acts of cruelty and barbarity on brother nations, she 
appears before the world as a sinister apparition of 
the most retrograde ages in history. We solemnly 
protest against the iniquitous and scandalous usurpa- 
tion of which Peru and Bolivia are the victims, in 
spite of their heroism, and we beseech the God of 
nations to look favorably on the prompt restoration of 
lawful sovereignty, as a security for peace and concord 
among the sons of America." 

Chile holds the Peruvian nitrate province as the re- 
sult of all this bloodshed. But she has not been mind- 
ful of the proverb — "La codicia rompe el saco. " Ta- 
rapaca, with an ample revenue in itself, is separated 
from Chile by the vast deserts of Atacama. It is 
practically an island. At any moment a mutinous 
fleet can seize it and carry on a civil war without risk 
and in safety. Chile is thus at the mercy of any ambi- 
tious commander who can gain over the fleet. This 
was foreseen. Within seven years it had actually 
happened. By using Tarapaca, a civil war was raised 
which could not have been attempted without it. The 
Cantos and Barbosas who massacred the poor Peru^ 



426 A HISTORY OF PERU 

vian Indians, in 1881, were flying at each others' throats 
in 1891. Two sanguinary battles were fought. The 
Chilean government was upset, a revolution was suc- 
cessful, and the "Pelucones " returned to power, with 
the successful admiral as president. 

Peru has suffered from no fault of her own. She 
has suffered cruelly. Crushed to the earth, and bleed- 
ing at every pore, she can yet have the consolation of 
feeling that her sons bravely and nobly did their duty. 
The 15th of January, 1884, was set apart at Lima, as 
a day of mourning for the heroic dead. The church of 
La Merced was hung with black cloth, and covered 
with wreaths of white flowers. The solemn requiem 
mass was celebrated in presence of a vast concourse 
of people, and Dr. Manuel Tovar delivered the funeral 
oration. 

There was yet work to be done. The Chilean nomi- 
nee was not the choice of the nation. General Caceres 
was the constitutional head of the state, and the whole 
interior of Peru desired that he should restore the 
reign of law. He proposed that Iglesias should resign 
power into the hands of the vice president under Prado, 
or to some other properly constituted authority, and 
that free elections should then take place. Iglesias 
refused. He held possession of the executive by force, 
banishing many influential citizens and silencing edi- 
tors. In August, 1884, Caceres made a sudden and 
audacious attempt to seize the capital, but he had 
been misinformed as to the support he would receive 
and, after some hard fighting in the streets, he was 
forced to retire. He retreated to Arequipa. The Igle- 
sias party also recovered Truxillo, in October, after 
a severe contest. 

In the end of March, 1885, General Caceres once more 



THE CHILEAN INVASION 427 

left Arequipa at the head of 4,000 well armed troops, 
with an advance guard under Colonel Morales Ber- 
mudez. On the 30th of April he was at A3^acucho, and 
in Ma}^, Truxillo was retaken by the constitutional 
part3\ In July Caceres established his headquarters at 
Tarma, and formed a ministry. In September Iglesias 
sent an arm}^ of 3,000 men under Colonel Relayze 
to the interior. Carceres retreated slowly to Xauxa, 
very skillfully inducing his opponent to follow him 
further and further from his base. On the 15th of 
November, Relayze encountered a division of the army 
of Caceres at Huaripampa near Xauxa, on the left bank 
of the river, hfe succeeded in driving his adversaries 
back, and in their endeavor to join the main body, the 
wire bridge, spanning the rapid, swollen river, broke 
and there was some loss of life. Relayze thought he 
had gained a great victor}^, and that Caceres was in full 
retreat southward. He was in a fool's paradise. 

The river was now between the forces of Caceres and 
Relayze ; and Caceres was also between Relayze and his 
base of operations at the Chilca railway terminus. That 
able strategist saw and seized the opportunity of ter- 
minating the contest. On the i6th of November he 
began a rapid march to Chicla. On the 24th he was 
there, and captured the rolling-stock. He at once took 
his forces down the line to Lima. The news threw 
Iglesias and his partisans into a state of consternation. 
All their troops had been sent away. The Chilean 
nominee filled the palace with the small garrison, and 
awaited his fate. 

On December ist, 1885, Caceres entered Lima, was 
joined b}^ many influential citizens, and sent an appeal 
to Iglesias to refrain from useless resistance. "Let 
commissioners be named bv each of us," he said, "let 



428 A HISTORY OF PERU 

us remember that we are Peruvians and not enemies." 
Iglesias consented. Both generals were to resign their 
commands, and a council of ministers in charge of the 
executive was formed, with Dr. Antonio Arenas to 
preside. A general amnesty was proclaimed, and the 
troops of Relayze laid down their arms. 

Thus did General Caceres, after fighting the enemies 
of his country with untiring energy and distinguished 
valor, during six weary years, finally restore peace to 
Peru. On the 5th a decree was issued calling for 
elections of a president, vice-presidents, senators, and 
deputies, and congress was ordered to meet at Lima 
on the 30th of May, 1886. With some reluctance 
General Caceres accepted the candidature that was 
pressed upon him. Iglesias and his family left Peru 
on December 25th, 1886, while man}^ exiles, including 
General Prado and Admiral Montero, returned joyfully 
to Lima. 

General Caceres became President of Peru amidst 
the hearty congratulations of all parties. His popu- 
larity was unbounded. 




General Don Andres A. Caceres. 



CHAPTER XX 

REGENERATION 

Andres Avelino Caceres was born at Ayacucho on the 
nth of November, 1838, and was educated in his na- 
tive town. When Castilla began his revolution against 
the government of Echenique in 1854, Caceres was just 
sixteen. The army passed by Ayacucho, and the lad 
solicited and obtained a sub-lieutenancy in the Ayacucho 
battalion, attached to the division of the vanguard. 
He served in the battle of La Palma and throughout 
that campaign. For his good service at La Palma 
young Caceres was promoted, and at the assault of Are- 
quipa under Castilla, he again distinguished himself 
and was severely wounded by a spent ball under the 
eye. It left a disfiguring scar, but did not injure his 
sight. Recovery from the effect of his wound was slow 
and the president, who had noticed the 5'oung fellow's 
zeal and gallantry, spontaneously arranged for him a 
journey to Europe, appointing him military attache to 
the Peruvian legation at Paris under the minister 
Galvez. After residing for a year at, Paris and Lon- 
don, and traveling over several parts of Europe, he 
returned to Peru. On his return he became a major 
in the "Pichincha" battalion, and joined Colonel 

Prado when President Pezet's government was over- 

429 



430 A HISTORY OF PERU 

thrown. Caceres served in the action of .May 2nd, 
against the Spaniards at Callao ; but on the fall of 
Prado he retired, and was not employed during the 
Balta administration. Indeed he was in prison for a 
year. 

Don Manuel Pardo appointed Caceres lieutenant- 
colonel of the "Zepita" battalion. There was a mutiny 
at Callao, and Caceres displayed remarkable firmness 
and gallantry in its suppression. Accompanied by a 
few men who remained faithful, he confronted the whole 
regiment, and shot down two ringleaders. He was ap- 
pointed colonel of the battalion, which he marched 
into the montana of Chanchamayu, and in the course 
of a year, brought his men into such an excellent 
state of drill and discipline that the "Zepita" was 
looked upon as the most reliable corps in the army. 
In 1877 he became prefect of Cuzco. General Caceres 
is very agreeable in society, a favorite with ladies, 
cheerful and merry, very affable to his subalterns, 
kind and indulgent to the men, strictly obedient to the 
orders of his superiors, and a blind follower of the call 
of duty. He was in Cuzco when Chile declared war, 
and hurried to Tarapaca with his battalion. He 
fought in almost every battle during the war. In the 
reserve at San Francisco, his prowess conduced to the 
victory of Tarapaca, and he stood foot to foot with 
the foe at Tacna, Chorrillos, Mirafiores, Pucara, and 
Huamachuco. Never despairing of his countr}^ un- 
daunted by reverses, he was ready to fight on until an 
honorable peace was won. When thwarted by intrigues 
with the enemy, he still held his ground, and the ex- 
pulsion of the Chilean nominee completed his service 
to Peru. 

General Caceres was inaugurated as constitutional 



RE GENERA TION 43 1 

president of Peru on the 3rd of June, 1886 ; with Colonel 
Bermudez as first, and Don Aurelio Denegri as second 
vice president. His prime minister was Don Pedro 
Alejandrino del Solar, a native of Lima of long official 
experience. During the war he did admirable service 
as prefect of Tacna, organizing field hospitals and 
ambulances, and fighting gallantly in the battle. He 
was afterward prefect of Arequipa, where he worked 
hard at the organization of new forces. In 1881 he 
retired to his estate at Magdalena near Lima, until the 
conduct of Iglesias aroused in him warm sympathy for 
the patriotic aims of General Caceres whom he joined, 
entering Lima by his side. 

President Caceres entered upon a most difficult and 
distressing task. Everywhere there was ruin, misery, 
and sorrow. The slaughter, and repeated massacres 
of Indians, had materially reduced the population. 
The treasury was empty. The country had been robbed 
almost to the last dollar. Yet hope and energy were 
left. With peace and sufficient time the people would 
take heart, and industries would revive. Meanwhile 
the strictest economy' was necessary in every depart- 
ment. 

A circular to the prefects was issued, declaring the 
president's policy to be the establishment of the Indian 
population on an equal footing with Peruvians of Span- 
ish descent, and the securing to them of the same rights 
and privileges. The aspirations of Tupac Amaru were 
thus realized, and the noble cause for which he was a 
martyr, had at length completely triumphed. 

The army was reduced to an effective force of 3,500 
men, and a police force of 1,500, six battalions of 
infantry of four hundred men each, two bands, two 
regiments of cavalry besides a squadron as an escort, 



432 A HISTORY OF PERU 

four batteries of mountain guns, and some *horse ar- 
tillery. In subsequent years this little force was made 
thoroughly effective, and supplied vv^ith the best and 
most improved weapons. 

The Peruvian navy was reduced to two small steam- 
ers, the "Peru" and the "Santa Rosa." But it had 
traditions of the past, a staff of officers with professional 
experience and distinguished services, and hopes for 
the future. Officers would find employment in various 
ways. The nucleus of a navy was entrusted to Cap- 
tain Villavicencio, the gallant hero of the "Union," 
and to Jose Galvez, the young lieutenant who sank the 
Chilean torpedo boat. 

Great efforts were made to repair the injury done to 
the institutions at Lima. The destruction of the pub- 
lic library was the most atrocious act of Vandalism per- 
petrated by the Chileans. The library contained 56,- 
127 volumes in 1880, including several rare editions of 
ihe Bible, Elzevir and Delphin editions of the classics, 
a very complete collection of standard works on phil- 
osophy, history, and science, and on American arch- 
oeology. Among rare works there was the defence of 
the church by Henry VIII., the discovery of the Ama- 
zons by Acuna, the relation of the Autos de Fe at Lima, 
a Venice breviary of 1489, an edition of Plato of 1491, 
and the Muzarabe Missal of Toledo of 1500, Every 
work that had been issued from the press of Peru since 
1584 was also in the library. The actual perpetrator 
of this crime against civilization must take his place 
with Alaric and Omar, His name was Pedro Lagos. 
Early in May, 1881, he seized the rooms of the library, 
turned them into a Chilean barrack, and scattered the 
books to the four winds. They were either sold as 
waste paper, thrown into the street, or stolen. To 



REGENERATION 433 

Don Ricardo Palma, the eminent Peruvian author, 
belongs the honor of having partially restored the li- 
brary, after many months of hard and zealous work. 
He recovered many books from those who had bought 
them as waste paper. Several public spirited men 
employed themselves, during the Vandalic occupation, 
in collecting scattered leaves. Spain and the Argen- 
tine Republic, the United States and Ecuador came 
forward with generous presents of books. The whole 
number of books recovered was 8,315. The series of 
portraits of Spanish viceroys, which were in the library, 
was also recovered and repaired, excepting those of 
Pizarro, Gasca, Vaca de Castro, Nieva, and Amat, which 
were stolen. The portrait of Carbajal is safe, and those 
of Presidents Castilla, San Roman and Prado. Many 
Peruvians combined in their efforts to assist the patri- 
otic labors of Palma ; and on July 28th, 1884, the nation- 
al library was solemnly re-opened, 27,894 volumes hav- 
ing been collected. 

The edifice of the university of San Marcos, the most 
ancient in the New World, had also been desolated by 
the Chileans. Dr. Francisco Garcia Calderon, who 
had patriotically accepted the presidency at a time of 
danger and calamity, and had suffered a long impris- 
onment in an unhealth}^ climate, returned to become 
president of the senate and rector of the university. 
Dr. Garcia Calderon, zealously assisted b}^ professors 
and students, worked hard at the restoration of the 
venerable institution. It had actually been turned into 
a cavalry barrack. Its gradual restoration to efficiency 
was a work of time and great difficult}^, owing to want 
of means, but by the end of 1886 its halls and lecture 
rooms were rendered fit for occupation. On Decem- 
ber 24th, t386, they were restored to their proper use, 



434 ^ HISTORY OF PERU 

and President Caceres was present, with his ministers, 
at the distribution of prizes to the students. 

The invaders had wantonly laid waste the beautiful 
gardens of the exhibition, destroying everything that 
could not be carried off as plunder. A society, formed 
for the purpose, restored the gardens so far as was 
possible, and they were again opened to the public, 
on June loth, 1884. 

Peru was weighed down by a foreign debt which 
could never be redeemed, while payment of interest 
out of the revenue of the ruined and impoverished 
country was impossible. The nitrate of Tarapaca had 
been secured to the creditors, but of this, the only 
possible means of obtaining payment, they had been 
defrauded by the Chileans. It was a most serious 
outlook, and there seemed an inevitable prospect of 
the country having to struggle on without credit, and 
without hope. The revenue at the close of the term 
of office of President Caceres (June ist, 1889, to May 
31st, 1890,) was as follows: — 

Customs (actual amount received) S4>955i944 

Taxes on consumption of tobacco $276,049 ^ 

" " " " alcohol 250,4761$ 914,150 

" " " " opium 233,430! 

" " " " miscellaneous 154,194 J 

Telegraphs % 30,651 

Postoffice 156,352 

Railways ; 36,306 

Various 310,022 

Balance 513,921 

$6,957,349 

The expenditure was reduced within the smallest 
possible limit, strict economy being enforced in all 
departments. 

Salaries of Deputies of Congress % 253,458 

Civil Departments..., 759,533 

Foreign Affairs, Missions, etc 220,807 

Instruction, Justice, Ecclesiastical 412,579 

Finance and Trade 1,076,632 

Army and Navy 2,257,976 

Supplementary credits of former years 733, 9^6 

Miscellaneous 339,061 ^ 

$6,073,967 



RE GENERA TTON 435 

The impossibility of meeting the obligations of the 
foreign debt with no other resources than are shown 
by the above financial statement was obvious, even 
after the former prosperity of the country has been 
restored by long 5/ears of frugality and industry. Mr, 
Michael Grace of New York, representing the foreign 
holders of Peruvian bonds, nevertheless submitted a 
proposal to the government of President Caceres which 
received serious consideration. It was referred to a 
committee consisting of the Vice President Denegri, 
Dr. Garcia Calderon, and Dr. Rosas, who reported in 
favor of its acceptance. The scheme was that the bond- 
holders should form a company to receive from the 
Peruvian government all the railways for a long term 
of years, mining privileges, and grants' of land for im- 
migration. In return the bond-holders were to deliver 
over to Peru one-half the obligations issued by her 
abroad, looking to Chile for settlement of the other 
half. The foreign debt would thus be cancelled. The 
plan was about to be submitted to congress when the 
Chilean minister protested, declaring that, in spite of 
the nitrate deposits being hypothecated to the Peru- 
vian creditors, Chile would refund nothing. The terms 
of the Grace contract were, however, fully and care- 
fully discussed in four special sessions of the Peruvian 
congress. 

Chile was wrong, even according to the terms of her 
own treaty of Ancon. It announced the intention of 
defrauding the creditors as regards the nitrate, but it 
provided that one-half the proceeds of 1,000,000 tons of 
guano, if existing in Tarapaca, should be set aside for 
the creditors of Peru. The European powers protested, 
but did no more, though the British government took 
action with the object of obtaining an arrangement of 



436 A HISTORY OF PERU 

the bond-holders' claims, at least so far as the treaty o' 
Ancon was concerned. Chile long persisted in her 
refusal, but at length a protocal was signed between 
Peru and Chile on January 8th, 1890, which enabled 
General Caceres to make an agreement with the rep- 
resentative of the foreign bond-holders. Chile ceded 
to Peru, and Peru transferred to the bond-holders the 
money derived from the sale of guano, which was de- 
posited in the bank of England (^558,565), eighty 
per cent of the sums received from guano by the Chil- 
eans since 1882, (^489,143) and the product of the 
guano deposits now being worked, including those on 
the coast of Tarapaca, for eight 3^ears. The guano is 
estimated at 80,000 tons, and a revenue is anticipated 
of ;£"i6o,ooo a 3/ear. 

Before this question with Chile was settled the Peru- 
vian congress, on October 25th, i88g, finally approved 
of the Grace contract as a solution of the question in- 
volved by the external debt of Peru. The debt, with 
interest up to 1886, amounted to ^51,423,190. The 
loan of 1870, with interest, amounted to ^18,160,775; 
the loan of 1872, including the old debt, with interest 
was ^32,858,778; and the loan for the Pisco and Yea 
railway in 1869, with interest, ;^403,6o7. The enor- 
mous obligation was now to be wiped off by means of 
the Grace contract. This important instrument, in 
the form adopted by congress, consists of thirty-five 
clauses. 

The bond-holders released Peru from all responsi- 
bility for her foreign debt. In return the Peruvian 
government ceded to the bond-holders all the state rail 
ways for sixty-six years, namely — 

Mollendo to Puno. ) * i-u a j 

/-« n i /-"u- 1 r Across the Ancles. 

Callao to Chicla. 



RE GENERA TION 437 

Juliaca to Santa Rosa (to be continued to Cuzco.) 

Pisco to Yea. 
Lima to Ancon. 
Chimbote to Suchinan. 
Pacasmayu to Guadalupe. 
Salaverry to Ascope. 
Payta to Piura. 



On the coast. 



also the free use of the qua3's at Mollendo, Pisco, 
Ancon, Chimbote, Pacasmayu, Salaverry and Payta. 
The bond-holders undertake to finish the line from 
Chicla to Oroya within three years, the line from Santa 
Rosa to Sicuani within four 3'ears, and to complete 
one hundred and sixty kilometres within six years, on 
other alternative lines, also to repair all the existing 
lines, and put them in proper condition for traffic 
within two 3^ears. The Peruvian government also 
ceded to the bond-holders the right of free navigation 
on Lake Titicaca, the vessels being commanded by 
officers of the Peruvian nav}- ; also all the guano exist- 
ing in the territory' of Peru, up to the amount of 3,000,- 
coo tons, Peru retaining the guano remaining on the 
Chincha Islands for its own agriculture. Further the 
government agreed to pay to the bond-holders thirty 
annuities of ^80,000 each, secured on the Callao cus- 
toms, making a total of ^2,400,000 ; payments to com- 
mence from the fourth 3^ear. The bond-holders were 
empowered to raise money by mortgaging railwa3'S and 
guano, up to a sum not exceeding ^^^6, 000, 000. In ac- 
cordance with the 29th clause, a compan\' was formed 
in London, in April, 1890, called the "Peruvian Corpo- 
ration," the bond-holders becoming share-holders by 
exchanging their six per cent bonds, at the rate of 
^100 bond for ^24 preference, or ^30 ordinarv shares 
— this was done b3' practicall3^ all the bond-holders. 
Half the railwa3^ emploves are to be Peruvians. 



438 A HISTORY OF PERU 

The Peruvian railwa3^s were handed over to the Pe- 
ruvian Corporation on the 30th of June, 1890; and the 
government did everything that could reasonabl}^ be 
expected to facilitate the working of the various con- 
cessions, smoothing away difficulties in the transfer of 
the properties conceded. The Cerro Pasco mines were 
transferred to the corporation by Mr. Grace, who had 
received the concession. The Earl of Donoughmore, 
who proceeded to Lima as representative of the bond- 
holders in August, 1888, and returned in i8gi, sub- 
mitted a report to the directors of the Peruvian Cor- 
poration, in which he attributed the success of his mis- 
sion to the firm and wise administration of General 
Caceres and his successor. All the railway lines had 
been restored to efficiency and were working with reg- 
ularit}^ by the beginning of 1891. 

Peru was thus relieved of all foreign debt. The in- 
terest and sinking fund of the internal debt, amount- 
ing to about ^7,000,000, will be provided for by the tax 
on alcohol, five per cent of the custom duties, and some 
other taxes especially set apart for the purpose. 

In return for the cancelling of their bonds, the for- 
eign creditors have acquired concessions of great value. 
Peru has, ai the same time, been freed from a heavy 
and desolating load of debt by this statesmanlike meas- 
ure. Working hand in hand with the corporation, her 
government will be enabled to restore prosperity to the 
countr)^ Already, toward the close of the administra- 
tion of Caceres, the traces of the war were fast disap- 
pearing. The signing of the Grace contract is a noble 
termination of the presidency of General Caceres. He 
fought the enemies of his country desperately and te- 
naciously to the bitter end. He then became consti- 
tutional president for four years, and closed his admin- 



RE GENERA TION 439 

istration by a measure which freed his country from debt 
and, in all human probability, ensured its future pros- 
perity. 

On the loth of August, 1890, General Caceres re- 
signed the office he had held for the legal period of four 
years, and on the same day Colonel Don Remijio Mor- 
ales Bermudez was inaugurated as President of Peru, 
with Dr. Pedro Alejandrino del Solar as first, and 
Colonel Don Justiniano Borgoilo as second vice-pres- 
ident. In April, 1891, General Caceres proceeded to 
Europe as Peruvian minister to Great Britain and 
France. 

Remijio Morales Bermudez was born of good parent- 
age, on the 30th of September, 1836, in the enchanting 
little oasis of Pica, in the province of Tarapaca, 
famous for its lucerne fields, and its vine-covered hills. 
He was educated in this secluded spot, and at the age 
of eighteen he became a sub-lieutenant in a regiment 
organized in Tarapaca, in 1854, to co-operate with Cas- 
tilla against the government of Echenique. Young 
Morales Bermudez was at the battle of La Palma and 
became a major in 1862. Under Balta he did useful 
service on the Amazon, as commandant at Iquitos, 
and Pardo made him sub-prefect of Truxillo. Serving 
gallantly in all the battles of the Chilean invasion he 
attached himself loyally and zealously to General Ca- 
ceres, and rose to power with him. President Morales 
Bermudez has already shown that he possesses quali- 
ties which fit him for his exalted position ; preferring 
the good of the state to his own interests. In a letter 
dated October 26th, 1891, to the president of the con- 
gress, he acknowledged the receipt of a resolution of 
congress conferring upon him the rank of general. 
He declined the honor on the ground that, in his opin- 



440 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ion, such promotion should be reserved for officers 
who had distinguished themselves by acts of great 
valor or by professional ability, while he, as a soldier, 
had merely done his duty. "If" he concluded, "as 
chief of the state I have done well in the judgment of 
the representatives of the people, the approval of my 
fellow countrymen will be my sufficient reward. " 

Dr. Solar, the first vice president, is an official of 
great experience, did admirable service in the Chilean 
war, and, as a trusted minister of Caceres, shared in 
the statesmanlike measures of the late administration. 
Justiniano Borgono, the second vice-president, son of 
General Pedro A. Borgono, was born at Truxillo in 
1836. He passed several years in the management of 
the family estate in the valley of Chicama ; but when 
the Chilean invasion commenced he fiew to arms. He 
fought at the battle of Chorrillos in the right wing 
under Iglesias, on the Morro Solar, but was wounded 
and taken prisoner. Afterward he supported Caceres 
with zeal and ardor, and was again wounded at the 
battle of Huamachuco. Disapproving of the conduct 
of Iglesias, he continued with the constitutional party 
until the descent to Lima secured final victory, and he 
was in the ministries of Caceres in charge of the port- 
folios of war and marine. 

Peru now has a firm and stable government, bent on 
peace and on the steady fulfilment of obligations. 
Few countries have passed through such terrible and, 
for the most part, such undeserved misfortunes. 

The Spanish conquest destroyed a very remarkable 
civilization, perfectly adapted to the people who lived 
under it, and the colonial policy of Spain entailed in- 
tolerable sufferings and nearly annihilated the native 
population, in the course of three centuries reducing 



REGENERATION 441 

it from ten to less than one million. Spain gave in 
return many valuable European products, and brought 
into the country an upper stratum of population con- 
sisting of families of Spanish descent, whose descend- 
ants became Peruvians, and were partially welded with 
the aboriginal stock. We have seen how these later 
people of Peru imbibed noble ideas of freedom, and 
fought bravely and resolutely until they secured their 
independence. At first they were inexperienced and 
often unwise in the management of that precious gift. 
They had to learn its use, and to pay dearly for the 
lesson. But they did learn, and made steady progress. 
The assertions so often made that Peru is a country of 
incessant, unmeaning revolutions and disturbances is 
false. In the whole period of its existence, from 1829, 
to 1879, the republic had seven years of civil and for- 
eign war, and forty-two years of peace. In the last 
thirty years it had two and one-half of civil war and 
twenty-six and one-half of peace : and one civil war of 
one year and four months was confined exclusively to 
a disturbance in a single town. 

The Chilean invasion was unprovoked and was an 
undeserved calamity. The material loss was enormous. 
But material gain and loss are not all that a nation lives 
for, as the gainful victors will find to their cost. There 
was some gain for Peru, in the midst of her mourning 
and her desolation. The Chilean historian has truly 
remarked — "In many ages Peru will not forget the cruel 
hecatomb sacrificed on the lines of Miraflores ; but her 
own blood thus generously and freely shed in the cause 
of duty, will perhaps serve hereafter as a stimulus to 
regeneration." The deeds of valor, of self-denial, and 
of devotion to duty will be memories fondly treasured 
by the people, and will be incentives to perseverance 



442 A HISTORY OF PERU 

in the onl}- course which leads to prosperity and peace. 
That path appears now to have been taken by the gov- 
ernment and people of Peru. 

The history of Peru is perhaps a sadder record than 
is met with in most nations, but it is full of stirring 
incidents, and affords much subject for thought. Pur- 
sued by calamities, obstructed by difficulties, the peo- 
ple have struggled on toward their ideal ; and, as they 
now stand, still helpful and hopeful amidst their ruined 
work, they deserve the friendly sympathy of the civil- 
ized world. 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE PEOPLE OF PERU 

The people of Peru are not homogeneous, but are 
composed of two or more races, and of the inter- 
marriages between them. The Spanish colonial S3^stem 
had reduced the population from 10,000,000, when 
Toledo founded that system in 1580, to 1,232,122 in 
1795, figures which suggest a harrowing tale of cruelty 
and oppression. Since the independence there has been 
a slow increase. In 1836 the population was 1,373,736, 
but this slight improvement was due to the addition of 
the Puno province, which was counted in the Buenos 
Ayres viceroyalty in 1795. In 1850 the figures 2,001,203 
probably mark a real improvement, which was still 
more apparent in 1862, and in 1876 the census gave a 
population of 2,704,998. The Chilean devastation has 
no doubt caused a sensible diminution. There were 
massacres of hundreds of Indians at Huancayo and at 
Huanta. Undoubtedly the great need of Peru is, and 
will long continue to be, the increase of her population. 

The upper class is mainly composed of Peruvians of 
pure Spanish descent, with a small number of half-castes 
or mestizos, and some pure Indians. The population of 
the Sierra consists of Inca Indians and mestizos; while the 

laboring population of the coast is negro and Chinese, 

443 



444 A HISTORY OF PERU 

The official language throughout Peru, and the general 
language of the coast is Spanish; but Quichua, the 
the language of the Incas, is still the general language 
of the Sie?'ra, although x\3'mara is spoken somewhat. 

Spaniards continued to arrive and settle in Peru 
throughout the 290 3'ears of Spanish domination, estab- 
lishing their families in all the towns of the coast and 
the interior, and the number of families of pure Spanish 
descent, especially in Lima and the other coast cities, is 
considerable. A few, such as the Astetes of Cuzco, trace 
their descent from the old conquerors, but the majority 
derive from Spanish officials or merchants who arrived in 
the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 
A considerable number of the more wealthy and influen- 
tial received titles of nobility from the kings of Spain; 
which had to be abandoned on the advent of the repub- 
lic. The Peruvians derive their ancestry from all parts 
of Spain. Many names are Castilian and Galician, Anda- 
lusian names are also numerous, Catalonian are common, 
and there is a very large sprinkling of Basque. Salaverr}^, 
Echenique, Mariategui, Mendiburu, Lizarzaburu, Zubi- 
aga, Elespuru, Go3^eneche, Gorrichategui, Izaguirre, 
Ormasa, are names of men who took a prominent part in 
Peruvian history, and the}^ are all pure Basque. 

Climate has had some influence in the formation of 
character, and on the physique of descendants of Span- 
iards. The people of Lima and the coast cities are 
more brilliant and versatile than their brethren in the 
Sierra, whose qualities are generally steadier and more 
solid; while numerous traits appear in the characters of 
individuals which indicate Basque, Castilian or Andalu- 
sian ancestr}^ The sudden and complete emancipation 
of thought on the removal of viceregal repression, and 
the patriotic ardor called forth by the war of independ- 



THE PEOPLE OF PERU 445 

ence had a marked influence on the first and second 
generations of repubhcans. The memorable flight of 
half the schoolboys at Lima to the the camp of San 
Martin is an example of the generous ardor as well as of 
the impulsive rashness of the Limenos. The same 
youths did not, however, wax faint when the novelty of 
camp life had worn off. Most of them fought on to 
the end, and we have the high testimony of General 
Miller to their gallantry and fine qualities as soldiers. 
The youths whose dead bodies were piled in heaps along 
the lines of Chorrillos and Miraflores were their worthy 
descendants. The Peruvians of Lima, called Limenos, 
are generous and hospitable, but inclined to extrava- 
gance. They are a talented race, but their intellects are 
generally developed at too early an age, and a promising 
youth often disappoints the expectations that are natur- 
ally formed of it. Ardent imaginations and brilliant 
intellects give a charm to the company and conversation 
of the younger men, but these qualities do not always 
bear solid fruit in riper years. The Peruvians form warm 
and lasting friendships, and their family affections are 
very strong. Their resentments, though violent and 
tempestuous at the outset, are soon appeased. They are 
not cruel, even when aroused to anger, and their civil 
dissensions have been singularly free from executions or 
proscriptions of long duration. 

The ladies of Lima maintain a high standard of beauty, 
and are remarkable for their graceful carriage and small 
feet. They are intelligent and imaginative, and have 
always taken a keen interest in politics. Their kindness 
and love of hospitality, and their desire to give pleasure, 
make the tertulias or evening parties, often combined 
with dancing, the most charming feature of Lima society. 
Very reserved when walking to church or in the alamedaSy 



446 A HISTORY OF PERU 

they exert themselves to make their houses agreeable 
when they receive guests, and their animated conversa- 
tion and genuine kindness render these reunions most 
attractive. The younger generation is highly educated, 
and most 370ung Peruvians of the upper class, of both 
sexes, speak French or English fluentl3^ In the earty 
decades of this century, before and immediate!}' after the 
independence, the national dress of the ladies of Lima 
and Truxillo, when visiting or going to mass, was the 
saya y manto. The saya was a skirt gathered in very 
narrow pleats so as to fit close to the figure, and the 
manto was a hood fitting into the waist, and drawn up 
to cover the head and face. The fair wearer held it so 
that only one eye appeared. Admirably adapted for 
carr5ang on intrigues, whether political or social, much 
of the work connected with the propaganda for libert}^, 
in the time of the last viceroys, was carried on b}^ fair 
lovers of freedom in the saya y manto. The narrow 
pleated saya began to be considered unbecoming in 
the days of President Orbegoso and the saya Orbego- 
sena, with full skirts, took its place. This singular but 
interesting dress held its own for many 3^ears, but modern 
innovation crept in, and now nothing is worn but dresses 
in the latest Paris fashion. 

At Lima, as in all the chief cities of Peru, the cere- 
monies of religion occupied much of the time of the 
ladies and, in a lesser degree, of the sterner sex, but in 
this respect things have changed very much of late 
years. Lima was full of churches, and the}^ were once 
crowded with worshippers, but so large a number is no 
longer needed. Some have been converted to secular 
uses. San Juan de Dios is now a railwa}^ station, San 
Francisco has been used as a barrack. The cathedral 
was rebuilt by the viceroy, Count of Superunda, after 



THE PEOPLE OE PERU 447 

the earthquake in 1746, and its towers were completed 
fifty years later. Dr. Luna Pizarro, one of the most 
ardent workers in the cause of independence, was arch- 
bishop of Lima from 1846 to 1855, and was a great 
benefactor to the cathedral. The picture of St. Veronica 
by Murillo, in the chapel of St, Toribio, was presented 
by Archbishop Luna Pizarro, as well as the organ built 
in Belgium. His successor, Dr. Goyeneche, was the 
senior prelate of Christendom, and by far the richest. 
He became bishop of Arequipa in 1818, and he died 
archbishop of Lima, at the age of eighty-eight, in 1872. 
Dr. Francisco Orueta y Castrillon, who was archbishop 
from 1873 to 1886, during the saddest period of Peruvian 
history, patriotically granted the treasures of the churches 
to the public needs, and showed his love for his unfortu- 
nate country in many ways during the Chilean occupa- 
tion. Born at Lima, of ancient Basque descent. Dr. 
Orueta was a good example of the best type of Peruvian 
priest, as pious as he was patriotic. The present arch- 
bishop, Dr. Bandini, the son of a Spanish naval officer 
and of a lady of Arequipa, was born at Lima in 1820. 
He was formerly rector of the college of San Toribio, 
where he introduced a higher course of stud}^, and for 
several years he was coadjutor of his predecessor. The 
archepiscopal palace is on the same side of the great 
square as the cathedral. 

Formerly the streets of Lima were crowded with 
monks of the different orders in their picturesque dresses, 
the Augustine monks in black, the Dominicans in black 
and white, the Franciscans in grey, Mercedarios in 
white, Buena Muertes in black with a red cross on 
cassock and cloak. The church and convent of San 
Francisco, with its spacious cloisters, was the most 
sumptuous in Lima; that of San Domingo, with its tall 



448 A HISTORY OF PERU 

single tower, is the most venerated, containing the 
mortal remains of Santa Rosa. The church of San 
Pedro, with its cloister, belonged to the Jesuits, but 
since their expulsion in 1767 it has been occupied b}/ the 
fathers of St. Philip Neri. Lima contains more than a 
dozen nunneries, and there have been the college of the 
Sacred Heart, since 1876, under American and Irish 
nuns, and the college of Belen under French nuns, 
where 3^oung ladies receive a finished education. 

Among the educational establishments of Lima the 
college of San Carlos has faculties of philosoph}^, letters, 
mathematics, and natural sciences, the courses extending 
over five years. Here the greater part of the Peruvian 
youth of good family is educated, but those intended for 
the church become students of the college of San Toribio. 
The school of medicine was famous in the early days of 
republican ideas for the boldness and patriotism of its 
students, and it was immensely improved by Dr. Caye- 
tano Heredia, the late rector. He raised medical science 
in Peru to a height which did honor to the country, and 
gave new life to scienti^fic studies. There has been 
another medical institute since 1884, known as ''La 
Academia Libre de Medicina, " and President Pardo 
established a school of mines and civil engineering in 
1874. Besides these educational institutions, a naval 
school and a sailor's training school are established on 
board two ships at Callao, a military school at Lima, 
and a soldier's preparator}^ school at Chorrillos. There 
are also several practical mining schools in the mining 
districts, and a nautical college at Payta. 

The public amusements of Lima are of a very different 
character from what they were a few years ago. Bull 
fights were always confined to Lima, and they are now 
of rare occurrence, while public cock-fights have been 



THE PEOPLE OF PERU 449 

prohibited by law, since 1879. Inste'ad, there have been 
cricket clubs, both at Lima and Callao, for the last 
twenty-five years and, as so many young Peruvians now 
study in England, these clubs have many native members 
who take a great interest in the game, and matches are 
very frequent. There are also four or five good lawn 
tennis clubs. The Peruvian Jockey Club has a race 
course half-way between Lima and Callao, and there are 
at least four meetings every year, which are well attended. 
During the Chilean invasion all the best horses of English 
breed, which had been imported at great cost for stud 
purposes, were shipped off to Chile. Both at Callao and 
Chorrillos there are boating clubs, and the annual regatta 
excites great interest. Nearly every foreign colony in 
Lima has a shooting club, and the Peruvians are ver}^ 
keen at this sport, having established at least one such 
club in every large town in the republic. 

Numerous social clubs have been formed in recent 
years. In Lima there are the ^' Union, " '^Nacional," 
'Centro," ^'Militar," -^Ateneo," '^ Literario," ''Fotos," 
''Sociedad Filarmonica," all of which are Peruvian, and 
there are also several clubs of foreign settlers. Formerly 
the most frequented promenades were in the alamedas or 
avenues on the left bank of the Rimac, and on special 
days there were excursions to the hill of Amancaes at 
the season when it is covered with yellow lilies, and 
processions on the day of Santa Rosa in August, and on 
other occasions. Now the favorite promenade is the 
exhibition grounds where the military band plays twice 
a week during the winter season, and it is here that the 
children of the upper classes assemble to romp about 
and play. The grounds are well laid out, and are with- 
out dispute the prettiest pleasure gardens in South 
America. The great boulevards around Lima, which 



450 A HISTORY OF PERU 

were built by Mr. Meiggs, the well-known contractor, 
were totally destroyed by the Chilean invaders. 

The sanitary arrangements of Lima are good. Form- 
erly the azequias or water channels flowed down the 
centre of the streets. Now the drains traverse every 
street at a depth of two yards, and are constantly flooded 
by channels from the river Rimac. The water supply is 
excellent: 170 gallons of water per head of inhabitants 
are supplied from filtration of the Rimac every twenty- 
four hours. Gas is used in every house, electric lighting 
and telephones have been introduced; and there are 
fifteen miles of street railways. 

There have always been residents in the country 
among Peruvians of Spanish descent, who were the 
owners of estates in the coast valleys, producing cotton, 
sugar, and vines. 

Until 1855 the estates on the coast of Peru were 
worked by negro slave labor. The buildings were hand- 
some and extensive, consisting of a dwelling house, 
with large, airy rooms, handsomel}^ furnished, a chapel 
with a priest attached, a trapiche or sugar mill, boiling 
house, refining rooms, and store rooms. The proprietors 
were generally intelligent and most hospitable country 
gentlemen, surrounded by charming families, and kind 
to their slaves and dependents. 

Interchanges of visits, with occasional picnics, kept 
up a feeling of kindliness and good will among the own- 
ers of neighboring estates. A flower and fruit garden 
is attached to each house, where groves of the tall 
chirimoya, the lofty and graceful palta, oranges and 
lemons supply delicious fruit, and the granadillas, the 
fruit of the passion flower, hang over the trees in rich 
profusion. Near the other buildings, but separate, was 
the galpon of the slaves, a village of huts with a small 




b^Si^^s;j»afe- 



A Street Scene in Lima on a Holiday. 



THE PEOPLE OE PERU 451 

square in the centre, surrounded by a high wall. The 
slaves received clothing, food, and lodging, and had 
numerous holidays. Early in the morning the women 
and girls repaired to the door of the chapel, before 
going to work, and chanted a hymn. This was repeated 
at sunset, when the day's work was ended. 

The emancipation of the negro slaves, in 1855, altered 
the conditions of life and labor on the coast estates. 
Many left the galpones and went to live in the neighbor- 
ing towns. They came to work for a few days and left 
off, as the humor took them. This led to the introduc- 
tion of Chinese labor. There is no doubt that, on 
some estates, the coolies were very cruelly treated and 
were, on several occasions, driven to such despair as to 
rise against their task-masters. This ill treatment 
occurred, in most instances, on estates where the pro- 
prietors did not reside, and where the management was 
left to a major-domo, who was often a foreigner. There 
are now about 50,000 Chinese in Peru, and their con- 
dition is much improved. They voluntarily contract 
themselves on the sugar estates for two years, being 
comfortably housed, with fixed hours of labor and regu- 
lar wages. Lord Donoughmore has reported that they 
appear industrious and contented, and are well treated. 

In some parts of the coast the deserts become covered 
with beautiful wild flowers from June to December, and 
in happier days the families of proprietors of estates 
used to encamp among the flowers in large parties, 
while the younger men hunted the deer and guanacos in 
the adjacent mountains. On the plains around Piura, 
a few showers bring out abundant pasture and innumer- 
able bright colored flowers. The climate is delicious, 
''the warmth is not heat, and the coolness is not cold." 
On these lomas of the Peruvian coast there is no 



452 A HISTORY OF PERU 

sickness, all life is pleasure, while the verdure and the 
cool climate lasts. Among the most delicious lomas 
are those of Tallamolle and Alfarillo, between the rivers 
of Moquegua and Locumba. When the verdure ap- 
peared, the proprietors of estates in the valleys turned 
their cattle and sheep on these lomas. In the month 
of October all the families of the Locumba valley used 
to encamp on the bright green lomas of Tallamolle, 
under the shade of olive trees. Life, at the encamp- 
ment, was a long period of pleasure and entertainment. 
Riding and sea bathing in the mornings, dancing after 
breakfast, then racing their horses on the sandy beach, 
or resting among the flowery meads, listening to songs 
with guitar accompaniments; and after supper dancing 
until midnight. The 3^oung men often went from tent 
to tent, singing the national yaravis. There was no 
formality, all considered themselves members of one 
affectionate family. Those were happy times. Now 
the estates in the Locumba valley, desolated by the 
Chilean invaders, are abandoned, their proprietors ruined. 
The days of prosperity have departed, but not, it may 
be hoped, forever. 

The Peruvians of the mountainous interior, called 
Se?'ra?ios, live in a very different climate and are surround- 
ed by circumstances which are distinct from the coast 
environments. The difficulties of traveling, though now 
partially removed by railwa3's, are ver}^ great and require 
much preparation. Most of the roads are merely mule 
tracks, and the}^ are taken over passes of the Andes from 
14,000 to 17,000 feet above the sea, amidst snow and ice. 
In some places the only shelter is a cave, but, as a rule, 
there are stone huts serving as post-houses, at intervals, 
but containing no furniture or provisions. The traveler 
has to make his preparations before starting, both, as 



THE PEOPLE OE PERU 453 

regards carriage and food. A good riding mule, an 
^jirr/*?/-^ or muleteer who could act as a guide, and two or 
more baggage mules are necessary for a long journey 
in the Sierra. One mule carries two bullock hides sewn 
together, called an aimofrex, containing mattress, pillow, 
and bed clothes, besides many articles of clothing, for 
the post-houses furnished nothing. The hospitality of 
the people renders inns in the large towns unnecessary. 

There are many families of pure Spanish descent in 
the large towns of the interior, such as Caxamarca, 
Huanuco, Tarma, Xauxa, Ayacucho, Cuzco, Puno and 
Arequipa, not a few passing several months of each 
year on their estates. Brought up among the Indians, 
and learning the Quichua language from their nurses, 
the Serranos are thoroughly Peruvian, while the cold, 
healthy climate and the mountainous countr}^ tend to 
the production of a robust and active ph3^sique. Several 
families retain the auburn and flaxen hair of their Gothic 
ancestors, but the majority have black, or very dark 
brown hair, but are taller and of larger build than their 
brethren of the coast. 

The houses of the Sierra have red tiled, sloping roofs, 
and are built around a court-yard with an upper story, 
and usually a wide veranda or balcony running around 
it. There is a sala or reception room and a comedor or 
dining-room, but the family usually sit and receive inti- 
mate acquaintances in the balcony. Warm cloaks and 
braseros supply the places of stoves or fire grates. All 
the members of a Serrano family can converse with the 
Inca Indians in their own language; and the relations 
between the two races are, in many places, friendly and 
cordial. Ladies and children thread their way among 
the market people in the early mornings, making pur- 
chases and exchanging news with their humbler friends. 



454 A HISTORY OF PERU 

In Cuzco and Ayacucho, in spite of the great difficulties 
of transit, nearly ever}'- house contains a pianoforte, and 
the young ladies are generally good musicians. The 
men have received the best education their colleges can 
supply; but it is their natural curiosity and desire for 
knowledge which gives such a charm to the society of 
the people of the Sierra. In Cuzco and other towns 
great attention is being paid by them to the study of 
Inca antiquities, while, in Rivero and Melgar, Arequipa 
has produced poets of no mean order. 

The Indian population is little changed in appearance 
since the days of the Incas; while great numbers of 
mestizos or half-castes have retained most of the Inca 
characteristics. Tupac Amaru, as a statesman, was one 
of the most remarkable men Peru has produced. Gen- 
eral Santa Cruz, whose soaring ambition so nearly suc- 
ceeded in its object, had Inca blood flowing in his veins. 
Other men of the blood royal of the Incas survive, in 
spite of the efforts of Toledo and Areche to exterminate 
them. Among them were Dr. Pablo Justiniani, who 
collected the dramas and songs of his ancestors in his 
remote mountain home, and Clemente Tisoc, who met a 
soldier's death at the battle of La Palma. With intel- 
lectual powers fitting them to rise to the highest positions 
in church or state, under favorable surroundings, the 
Indians still form nearly the whole laboring class in the 
interior of Peru. 

Like his ancestors the Indian of the present day is 
robust, and capable of enduring great fatigue. His 
countenance is usually clouded with a look of profound 
melanchoty, the indelible stamp of centuries of intoler- 
able oppression. The worst forms of tyranny disap- 
peared with the expulsion of the. Spaniards in 1824, and 
the tribute was abolished in 1855. But the crushing 



THE PEOPLE OE PERU 455 

oppression of the Spanish conquerors made a deep 
impression on their victims, which has produced a last- 
ing effect. It instilled a natural hatred of their cruel 
enemies into their minds, as well as a profound aversion 
for their civilization. But they were equally impressed 
with the tremendous power of men who could utterly anni- 
hilate the rule of those Incas whom they revered almost as 
gods. This induced a feeling of hopeless despair. All 
the down-trodden people could do was to oppose a pas- 
sive resistance with a constancy peculiar to their tem- 
perament, and this attitude has become hereditary. 
Even now the Indians mistrust the liberty which they 
themselves helped to win as soldiers of the independ- 
ence. The moral condition of the Indians has sunk to a 
low level through the bad conduct of many of the parish 
priests, who not only set them an evil example, but give 
cause for drunkenness and immorality by their feasts 
and processions. These unfortunate results of contact 
with a spurious kind of Christianity have been at work 
for a long time, indeed ever since Padillo raised his 
voice against them two centuries ago. In later times 
the constant changes in the executive have at last 
destroyed all respect for authorities, and in some places 
the Indians have risen against the whites and mestizos 
within the last few years. Even now they have made 
themselves practically masters of Quanta, and of the 
rich valley of Andahuaylas. Defying the sub-prefects, 
they are obedient to their own alcaldes. 

Yet the Indians, as a race, were capable in the past 
of achieving a high civilization, and they are equally 
capable of great things in the future, under intelligent 
direction. They need officials and priests whom they 
can respect, and a settled government. They have 
always been ready to combine for the execution of any use- 



456 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ful public works at the call of their alcaldes, and all their 
own traditions lead them to obey an authority when they 
are convinced that his orders are for their benefit. 
Their rebellious and violent conduct, when it shows 
itself, is due entirely to misgovernment. 

The Inca Indians are excellent cultivators. They 
construct terraces, with great care, up the sides of the 
mountains, conduct channels of water to irrigate them, 
and produce the finest crops in the world of potatoes 
and Indian corn. The cultivation of coca, which calls 
for the greatest skill and care, is also peculiar to them. 
They also cultivate quinua at immense altitudes, and 
several edible roots unknown elsewhere. As shepherds 
they excel by reason of their patience and kindness to 
animals. It is probable that no other people could have 
successfully domesticated so stubborn an animal as the 
llama, so as to use it as a beast of burden; and 
constant watchfulness and attention alone enable the 
Indians to rear theirflocks of alpacas, which need assist- 
ance in almost every function of nature, and to produce 
the large annual out-turn of wool. As miners they are 
exceedingly apt at the work of extracting the metal 
from the ores; and no people in the world are to be 
compared with them in ability to endure the extremes of 
heat and cold. 

The Peruvian Indians live in stone huts, roofed with 
red tiles, or with the long grass called ychu, and they 
are well supplied with food and clothing. Since the 
insurrection of Tupac Amaru, when their ancient cos- 
tumes vvere prohibited, the dress of the men has been a 
coat of green or blue baize, with long, soft nap, having 
short skirtp and no collar, a red waistcoat with ample 
pockets, and black breeches, loose and open at the 
knees. The legs and feet are usually bare, but in cold 



THE PEOPLE OE PERU 457 

weather they wear knitted woolen stockings without 
feet, and untanned llama hide usutas or sandals. The 
montero is a velvet cap, with broad straw brim, covered 
with cloth, and ornamented with colored ribbons and 
gold or silver lace. At Cuzco the montero is worn both 
by men and women, but at Ayachuco the women use a 
graceful head dress, consisting of an embroidered cloth 
lying flat on the head, and hanging down behind. The 
men wear their hair long and twisted into small plaits. 
The dress of the women is a white or red bodice, blue or 
green skirt, reaching a little below the knees, and a 
lliclla or mantle of some bright color, secured across the 
chest by a large pin, usually with a spoon bowl at one 
end, of silver or copper. The men have an embroidered 
cloth bag, called chiispa, slung by a line over one 
shoulder, in which they carry their coca leaves. 

The people are fond of singing, especially when at 
work, and the little shepherd lads enliven their long 
hours of solitude with plaintive tunes on their pinciillus 
or flutes. The memory of former wrongs has tinged 
their most popular songs with sadness. The young 
mother lulls her infant to sleep with verses, the burden 
of which is sorrow and despair; and the love songs 
usually express the most hopeless grief. Still there are 
many festivals when the people indulge in cheerful 
intercourse, and but too often in an excessive use of 
their chicha, a pleasant fermented liquor made from maize. 
They are fond of singing birds, kept in cages, of flowers 
and bright colors. Their artistic talent, though not of a 
high order, is far from contemptible. The paintings of 
Quito, the wooden images of Cuzco, and the alabaster 
figures and groups of Ayacucho show decided talent, 
and the work of the Ayacucho sculptor, Medina, at the 
Lima exhibition, was universally admired. The mem- 



458 A HISTORY OF PERU 

ory of ancient times is preserved in songs and traditions, 
and it is believed that delegates, composed of the lead- 
ing Inca chiefs, periodically meet in secret congress, and 
discuss matters relating to the welfare of the people. 
The wisest course for the men of Spanish descent is to 
secure real and practical equality of all before the law. 

The Inca Indians make faithful and trusty servants, 
and become adnriirable soldiers. They are most affec- 
tionate in their family relations, and have an intense 
love of home. They are endowed with perseverance 
and industry, and serve the office of magistrates in their 
villages with a proper sense of responsibility. The 
alcaldes or magistrates are generally old men, dressed in 
sober-colored ponchos, and broad brimmed hats, made 
of wool, dyed black. They carry a staff of office with 
brass head and ferule, and brass rings around it accord- 
ing to the number of years that the holder has held the 
post of alcalde. A deep interest must always attach to 
these people, because they are the descendants of men 
who conceived and created a civilization and an admin- 
istrative system which was unsurpassed in fitness and 
efficienc}'', and even now they retain many of the virtues 
and high qualities of their ancestors. The}^ are all that 
is left, after centuries of oppression, of a once imperial 
race. 

Some of the tribes which formed the Inca empire have 
merged and become one. The Incas of Cuzco,. the 
Chancas of the Apurimac, the Pocras of A3^acucho, and 
the Huancas of Xauxa are now practically one people. 
But the Morochucos of Cangallo retain their individual- 
ity, displa3^ed in their passionate attachment to repub- 
lican freedom. Led by their own chief they came down 
to Lima in a body, to strike a blow for libert}^ in the 
fatal Imes of Miraflores. The Yquichanos, in the inac- 





mm :,^m , 



•5 




■■■'^\:,-^^'fe; 



■^ ; \\ 




Types of the Native Races. 



THE PEOPLE OF PERU 459 

cessible mountains east of Guanta, are equally brave 
and tenacious; but not such lovers of liberty. They 
were on the side of the royalists in the war of independ- 
ence, and also took the part of Santa Cruz and the con- 
federation. But during the Chilean invasion they were 
true to their country; and there was a massacre of seven 
hundred Yquichano Indians at Guanta in October, 1883, 
by the savage Colonel Urriola. 

The wonderful tenacity with which the Indians of 
Peru have clung to existence in spite of adverse circum- 
stances which would have swept most races off the face 
of the earth, gives ground for the hope that, under a 
more humane rule, and better auspices, they may once 
more begin to increase and multiply. From the mas- 
sacre of Pizarro, in 1532, to the massacre of Urriola, in 
1883, their cruel treatment has reduced them by millions, 
but it has not annihilated them. Good government will 
not only invite immigration, but ought also to lead to a 
steady increase in the aboriginal population. 

The first step towards good government must be 
taken in the direction of a more careful selection of 
executive officers and a longer and more certain tenure. 
The departments into which Peru is divided are governed 
by prefects, and the provinces, into which they are 
divided, by sub-prefects, all appointed by the presidents 
during pleasure, while the governors of districts are 
nominated by the prefects. Thus there is a strictly 
centralizing system, resulting in a total disregard for 
local wishes or requirements. The appointments have 
hitherto been made almost entirely as rewards for mili- 
tary or political support. A long continuance of settled 
government will, there is reason to hope, cause a change, 
and any improvement in these appointments will be 
conducive to better government and more confidence 



460 A HISTORY OF PERU 

among the Indians. At present the only officials they 
respect or cheerfully obey are their own alcaldes or 
magistrates. 

It is equally important that there should be an im- 
provement in the character and position of the parish 
priests. At present ecclesiastical government in Peru 
is in a somewhat dislocated position. Dr. Bandini, the 
archbishop of Lima, is an active prelate of high charac- 
ter, and the sees of Truxillo and Arequipa are filled by 
Dr. Medina and Dr. Huertas. The bishopric of Cha- 
chapoyas, which was created in 1802 for the settlements 
in the valley of the Amazon, has a zealous occupant in 
the person of Dr. Risco. The dioceses of Huanuco and 
Puno were created in 1864, and the bishops are now 
Drs. Puyrredon and Sardina. There are also two 
bishops, '^in pai'tibus mfidelmm,'' Dr. Manuel Tovar, 
and Dr. Jose Maria Carpenter. Thus the five bishops 
of Spanish times have been increased to eight. But the 
sees of Cuzco and Ayacucho are at present vacant. 
That constant supervision, of the conduct and practice of 
the parish priests, which is absolutely necessary to 
secure improvement, is neglected or entirely wanting. 
Yet such improvement is one means, and not the least 
important, of promoting the welfare of the Indian popu- 
lation; and it is one to which the attention of Peruvian 
prelates ought to be frequently and urgently called. 

Education has received some attention since the 
establishment of the republic, but much remains to be 
done. There is a department of instruction under one 
of the ministers at Lima, and commissions in the depart- 
ments and provinces, each consisting of two persons, 
with the prefects and stib-prefects presiding. The cen- 
tral educational institution is the ancient university of 
Lima, and there are lesser universities at Cuzco, Are- 



THE PEOPLE OE PERU 461 

quipa, Ayacucho, Puno, and Truxillo. The state was 
also credited, before the Chilean invasion, with the 
support of thirty-three colleges for men and eighteen for 
women in the principal cities, and 1,578 schools for boys 
and seven hundred and twenty-nine for girls. The 
expenditure on education in 1877 was estimated at 
$2,124,407. At that time Sefior Leubel prepared a 
return according to which there were twenty-one public 
colleges, actually working, and twenty-four private col- 
leges, four hundred and fifty public and two hundred and 
six private schools, the total number of scholars being 

32,555- 

The present government is making efforts to improve 
the means of education throughout the country, by the 
purchase of books and materials, the appointment of 
inspectors, and the collection of statistics. In 1889 
there were only eight hundred and forty-four elementar}/- 
schools, and an increase of one hundred and fifty was 
made in i8go. But the higher schools and colleges are 
still much crippled for want of funds, and it will be some- 
time before they can recover the position, as useful and 
active educational establishments, that they had attained 
before the Chilean invasion. Much depends upon the 
zeal and public spirit of the instructors, and in this 
respect the staff of the Cuzco and Arequipa colleges 
have particularly distinguished themselves The miser- 
ies of the war have been felt in all departments, but the 
way in which it has thrown back the education of the 
people will perhaps leave its mischievous influence 
longer than where material progress has been checked. 
The dislocation of work and the loss of funds have neces- 
sarily paralyzed instruction, more or less, all over the 
country, and recovery can only be slow. Yet encourage- 
ment and material help in the re-organization of the 



462 



A HISTORY OF PERU 



schools and colleges on the part of the government and 
the congress is one of their most important duties. 

Peace, careful selection of executive officials with 
reference to fitness, improvement in the character and 
position of the parish priests, and liberal promotion of 
educational efficiency, are the great needs for securing 
the welfare of all classes, and especially of the Indian 
population. Immigration and the execution of public 
works will be provided for, and if the Peruvian govern- 
ment wisely and zealously adopts measures for the moral 
needs of the people, prosperity will be secured with the 
improvement in the welfare and the increase in the num- 
bers of the population. 

The following list gives the political divisions of Peru 
at the time when the last census was taken: 



Departments. 
PlURA. 



Provinces. 
The most northern department divided 
into 5 provinces. 
Tumbez. 



Payta. 
Pitira. 
Ayavaca. 
Huancabamba. 



on the coast, 3 cities, 
7 towns. 

in the Sierra, 3 citie'- 
5 towns. 



II. 



LiBERTAD. 



Lambayeque. 
Chiclayo. 
Pacasmayo. 
Truxillo. 
Otuzco. 
Huamachucos 
Pataz. 



"] since made a Depart- 
ment, 
on the coast, 5 cities, 
33 towns. 

in the Sierra, 3 cities, 
2Q towns. 



III. Ancachs, I. Santa, on the coast 10 towns. 

2. Pallasca 10 

3. Pomabamba 4 

4. Huaylas .2 cities, 11 

5. Huaraz . 2 " 29 

6. Huari i " 15 

7. Cajatambo 64 



THE PEOPLE OE PERU 



463 



IV. 



Lima. 



V. 


Callao. 


VI. 


YCA. 


VII. 


Arequipa 



VIII. 



IX. 



Moquegua. 



Tarapaca. 



Chancay. 

Lima, 

Canete. 

Canta. 

Huarochiri. 

Yauyos. 



Towns. 
40 
II 
10 



city, \ on the coast, 
J 



in the Sierra. 



Callao I city, i towns. 

Chincha 4 " 

Yea 12 



Camana. 

Arequipa. 

Islay. 

Union. 

Caylloma. 



6. Condesuyos. 

7. Castilla. 



Moquegtia. 

Tacna. 

Arica. 

Camilla. 

Pisagua. 

Chiapa. 

Sibaya. 

Tarapaca. 

Mamiiia. 

Iquiqiie. 

Pica. 



coast,4 cities, 24 



Sierra, I city, 54 



3 cities, 35 " 
■ Tacna and Arica are 
occupied by the Chileans. 

\ This departinhtt is oc- 
cupied by the Chileaiis. 



18 towns. 



The above departments are on the coast, although some include 
provinces in the Sierra. The rest are entirely in the interior: 



X. 



Caxamarca. 



XI. 



XII. 



Amazonas. 



LORETO. 



1. Jaen i city, 12 towns. 

2. Chota 2 cities, 11 

3. Hualgayoc 5 

4. Celendin i city, 5 

5. Caxamarca . . . i " 11 

6. Contumaza 4 

7. Cajabamba i city, 4 

1. Bongara 10 

2. Luya 22 

3. Chachapoyas i city, 27 

1. Alto Amazonas 13 

2. Bajo " 7 

3. Moyobamba 2 cities, 4 

4. Huallaga i city, i3 



464 



A HISTORY OF PERU 



XIII. HuANUco. I. Huamalies >. i3 towns. 

2. Dos de Mayo 23 

3. Huanuco . i city, 21 " 

XIV. JuNiN. I Cerro Pasco i "48 

2. Tarina i " 29 " 

3. Xauxa 2 cities, 16 

4. Huancayo i city, 16 

XV. HuANCAVELicA. I. Tayacaja. 24 

2. Hiiancavelica i city, 14 " 

3. Angaraes 14 

4. Castro- Vireyna i city, 34 " 

XVI. Ayacucho. 1. Huanta 10 

2. La Mar 7 " 

3. Ayacucho i city, I5 " 

4. Cangallo i " 39 

5. Lucanas 57 

6. Parinacochas 20 

XVII. Apurimac. I. Andahuyalas 25 

2. Abancay 14 " 

3. Cotabambas 24 

4. Aymaraes 26 

5. Antabambas 14 " 

XVIII. Cuzco. I. Convencion 3 

2. Urubamba i city, 2 

3. Galea II " 

4. Paucartambo 7 

5. Anta II 

6. Cuzco I city, 2 

7. Quispicanchi 7 

8. Paruro 26 

9. Acomayo 17 

10. Chumbivilicas 8 

11. Canas 9 

12. Canchis 9 

XIX. PuNO. I. Caravaya 15 

2. Lampa i city, 14 " 

3. Azangaro 15 

4. Huancane 8 " 

5. Puno 2 cities. 15 " 

6. Chucuito 9 " 

The 19 departments and littoral provinces into which Peru is 
divided contain 93 provinces and 748 districts, 58 cities, 1,405 towns, 
643 villages, 6,187 rural hamlets, and no hamlets on the seashore; 
hamlets being collections of habitations with more than 50 inhabitants. 



THE PEOPLE OF PERU 465 

The population of Lima, the capital of Peru, was 103,956 in 1891, 
of which number 35.335 were Peruvians of Spanish descent. The 
negro and mulatto population was 7,494; Indians, 18,660; Mestizos, 
25,481; foreigners, 12,310, and Chinese, 4,676. 



30 



CHAPTER XXII 

LITERATURE OF PERU 

The literature of republican Peru is not without its 
traditions and its precursors. In spite of the inquisition 
and of the censorship, the Peruvians wrote voluminously, 
and sometimes well, even in the times of the viceroys. 
The Jesuits introduced printing in 1582, to circulate their 
catechisms and grammars of the native languages; but 
they did not confine themselves to such work. The 
most noteworthy writers on divinity belonging to the 
company, were Jose Buendia and Juan Perez Menacho. 
The famous Dr. Lunarejo, of Cuzco, whose real name 
was Espinosa Medrano, was an enthusiastic admirer of 
Gongora and imitated his style. He was also an excel- 
lent Quichua scholar, preaching and writing in that 
language in prose and verse. Don Pablo de Olavide, of 
Lima, was the author of a remarkable work entitled, 
^'El Evangelio en Triunfo." Leon Pinelo was a great 
bibliographer whose work is still constantly referred to 
by Spanish scholars, and Don Pedro de Peralta y Barnu- 
evo, published upwards of sixty books on philosophy, 
history, science, and literature. His best known work 
is the epic poem entitled '^Lima Fundada. " The publi- 
cation of the ''Mercuric Peruano" gave a great impetus 

to authorship, and one of its contributors, Don Hipolito 

466 



LITERATURE OE PERU 467 

Unanue, of Tacna, a physician and a statesman, brought 
out an excellent work entitled "Observations on the 
Climate of Lima." But poetry was the branch of litera- 
ture which was most cultivated, not only by the Peru- 
vian subjects of the viceroys, but by the viceroys them- 
selves. The Prince of Esquilache composed a poem 
called '^Napoles Recuperada," the Count of Santistevan 
left a book of verses entitled "Floras Sucesivas," and 
the Marquis of Castel dos Rios was the author of a 
tragedy entitled "Perseus," which was acted in the 
palace at Lima. Under such patronage the poetic 
muse flourished in viceregal times. Among many others 
Don Juan del Valle y Caviedes, in his satiric vein, was 
not second even to Quevedo. He exercised his wit 
against the doctors in a charming volume of verse called 
"Diente del Parnaso," which only saw the light about 
twemty years ago in the collection of Odriozola. This 
poet died in 1690, at the age of forty. The physician 
Valdez, also a native of Lima, made a scholarly trans- 
lation of the psalms. The lyrics of Melgar, both in 
Spanish and Quichua, possess poetic merit of a high 
order; and with him the list of colonial authors fitly 
closes. Melgar lost his life fighting for the freedom of 
his native land. 

The dawn of independence infused new vigor into 
national thought, and emancipated minds which were 
more or less fettered and confined under the colonial 
regime. Ideas of freedom and liberty of thought and 
action appealed strongly to the imagination and at first 
these ideas and aspirations found expression chiefly in 
poetry. Olmedo, a native of Guayaquil, won fame by 
his ode on the victory of Junin; and the satirical works 
of Don Felipe Pardo and Don Manuel Segura, who 
both died in the decade between i860 and 1870, became 



468 A HISTORY OF PERU 

known wherever the Spanish language is spoken. The 
comedies on the customs of Lima, especially "Un 
Paseo a Amancaes, " ''La Saya y Manto," and ''Catita," 
by Segura, scarcely have a rival in the whole range of 
the theatrical literature of Spanish America. These 
were the fathers of Peruvian poetr}^ 

From the year 1848 great progress in the cultivation 
of literature was made by the youth of Lima, and 
especially in the poetic art. From this period date the 
first poetical productions of Arnaldo Marquez, Manuel 
Nicolas Corpancho, Adolfo Garcia, Clemente Althaus, 
Pedro Paz Soldan (under the nom de plume of ''Juan 
de Arona"), Carlos Augusto Salaverry, Luis Benjamin 
Cisneros, Trinidad Fernandez, Constantino Carrasco, 
Narciso Arestegui, Jose Antonio Lavalle, and Ricardo 
Palma. 

Arnaldo Marquez is confessedly the poet, in this genera- 
tion, who has reached the highest excellence in purity of 
versification and wealth of poetic sentiment. The "Flor 
de Abel" is a creation of great merit, original and ingenious 
in conception, and full of tender sentiment beautifully 
expressed. Corpancho was a poet of the romantic school. 
He was the author of dramas, which were represented 
with much applause in Lima, and of a bright little 
volume of verses entitled "Brisas." The young poet, 
for he was barely thirty, lost his life in a shipwreck off the 
coast of Mexico, when employed on a diplomatic mission. 
Adolfo Garcia is a versifier rich in imagery and fanci- 
ful allusion, and he has written much, but only one small 
volume of his selected pieces has been published. 
Among them some verses to Bolivar have great merit. 
The genius of Garcia would doubtless have soared to 
higher flights, but unfortunately the horrors of Chorrillos 
and Miraflores played upon his mind, and he has lost his 



LITERATURE OF PERU 469 

reason. No Peruvian poet has been more careful in the 
form of his verses and the selection of appropriate words, 
more elegant in his expression of ideas, more tender and 
graceful than Clemente Althaus, who died at Paris in 
1880. His works are voluminous, but the most beauti- 
ful are the "Disencanto," in which the desolation of a 
soul reflecting on the awful certainty of oblivion is 
depicted in the '^Canto Biblico," and the "Night of Sol- 
itude." "Juan de Arona"is an accomplished scholar, 
well read in the Greek and Latin classics. He is an ex- 
ample of a youth who was the son of a country gentle- 
man living on his estate, and who was brought up in the 
country. Young Paz Soldan assumed the name of "Juan 
de Arona," in memory of the country house in the valley 
of Cafiete, where he passed his childhood. Born at Lima 
in 1839, he left college early and passed several years at 
his home in the village of Cafiete, studying nature and 
cultivating his poetical gifts. He then undertook a long 
course of European travel, returning to Lima in 1863. 
One of his earliest poems "Descripcion de un Valle," is 
devoted to memories of his own home in the valley of 
Canete, its village festivals, its scenery, its fruits and 
flowers, and above all the beloved features of the home 
itself with its tower seen from afar among the trees, its 
wide verandah, and the people singing before its chapel 
door. Some of the descriptions of fruits and flowers are 
exquisite in their delicacy of touch, and their truthful- 
ness. Another poem entitled "Espejo de mi Tierra," 
graphically depicts the state of society in Peru and the 
"Cuadros y Episodios Peruanos," is written with the 
same object, but many of the sketches are peculiarly in- 
teresting, because they depict incidents in country life. 
Many of the passages are brim full of humor and fun, 
and are witty without a sign of coarseness. "Juan de 



470 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Arona" is above all things an original poet, who loves his 
country and dwells with fondness on the sight and scenes 
of his home. He does not hesitate to use local words 
and expressions which, far from injuring his style, gives 
it a racy flavor which enhances the interest with which 
his poems are read. 

The publication of the volume entitled ''Peruanismos'^ 
by "Juan de Arona," followed naturally on the frequent 
use of native words in his poetry. "Peruanismos" is a 
dictionary, with interesting comments and quotations, 
not only of Quichua words which have crept into the 
general language, of Spanish corruptions, and of words 
invented by the Peruvians from Spanish roots, but also 
of many Spanish words which have received a different 
or more extended signification, or which, from being less 
used in ordinary conversation, belong more to a serious 
or poetic style of writing in Peru than is the case in 
Spain. 

The lyrical poetry of Don Carlos Augusto Salaverry, 
son of the unfortunate general who was himself a poet, 
is quite in the first rank, among modern Peruvian versi- 
fication, and he has also written several dramas. Among 
those who have written little, but always well, is the lyric 
poet Luis Benjamin Cisneros, whose novels entitled 
''Julia" and ''Edgardo," have also served to give him a 
solid reputation. Trinidad Fernandez and Constantino 
Carrasco are two poets who died very 3/oung, The 
former left a volume of lyrical pieces called "Margaritas 
Sylvestres, " while the most notable work of Carrasco is 
the translation of the Inca drama of "Ollanta" into 
Spanish verse. Lavalle and Arestegui were novelists 
rather than poets. The former rests his literary fame on 
a romance entitled "Olavide," while the novels written 
by Arestegui who, like Corpancho, lost his life in a ship- 



I 



LITER A TURE OE PER U 47 r 

wreck, are numerous, the most appreciated being "El 
Padre Horan." 

Ricardo Palma, the public spirited restorer of the na- 
tional library at Lima, is an author of great merit. In 
his youth he published three books of poetry, entitled 
^'Armonias," "Verbos y Gerundios" and "Pasionarias." 
Since 1870 he has devoted his attention to writing the 
historical traditions of Peru, work which has entailed 
much laborious research, and which he has presented to 
his readers in a most interesting style and with great 
powers of description, and portrayal of character. Six 
volumes of the traditions have already appeared, He 
has also written the annals of the inquisition in Peru. 
Senor Palma had a small country house at Miraflores 
which contained a library of over 2,000 volumes on 
America, and many curious and valuable manuscripts. 
This house and all it contained was burned by the Chileans 
— a wanton and barbarous act of destruction. Sefior 
Palma was himself imprisoned on board a Chilean ship 
for fifteen days, for having, as assistant director of the 
national library, prepared the following protest and sub- 
mitted it to the director. Colonel Odriozola, for signa- 
ture: — 

Lima, March loth, 1881. — The undersigned, Director of the 
National Library of Peru, has the honor to address your excellency, 
requesting that you will bring to the knowledge of your government 
the news of the crime committed against civilization by the Chilean 
authorities in Lima. To seize upon the libraries, archives, cabinets 
of physical and anatomical objects, works of art, scientific apparatus 
and instruments, and all that is necessary for intellectual progress, is 
to invest war with a barbarous character foreign to the lights of the 
age, to the usages of honorable belligerents, and to the universally 
recognized principles of right. 

"The library of Lima was founded in 1822, a few months after the 
declaration of Peruvian independence, and it was considered by 
literary men and by illustrious travelers, who have visited it, to be 
the first among the libraries of Spanish America. Enriched by the 



472 A HISTORY OF PERU 

protection of governments, and by the bequests of private persons, it 
counted, in 1880, nearly 50, 000 printed volumes and 8,000 manuscripts. 
It contained veritable literary treasures, and books printed during the 
first half century after the invention of printing; very rare works on 
history and literature: the curious productions of nearly all the chron- 
iclers of Spanish America; and works presented by foreign gov^ern- 
ments. 

' ' Such was the library of Lima, a library of which we, the sons of 
Peru, were justly proud. 

" On the 17th of January the capital was occupied by the Chilean 
troops; and for more than a month the invader respected the educa- 
tional establishments. No one could have supposed, without an 
insult to the government of Chile, a government which pretends to 
civilization and culture, that this government would seize as plunder 
of war the appliances of the university, the museum of the school of 
medicine, the instruments of the school of mines, the national arch- 
ives, and objects belonging to other institutions of a purely scientific, 
literary, or artistic character. 

" On the 26th of February the keys of the library were demanded, 
and this was the commencement of a most scandalous spoliation. 
The books were taken away in carts, and it is supposed that the 
intention was to embark them, to be sent to Santiago. Anyhow the 
library has been completely gutted, as if books had been contraband 
of war. 

' ' This is addressed to your excellency in order that before your 
illustrious country, before America, and before the whole civilized 
world there may be a protest against such an act." 

This protest was presented to the minister of the 
United States. The only effect it produced was the 
persecution of Colonel Odriozola and Don Ricardo 
Palma, for having written it. The common soldiers 
were allowed to share the plunder, and they sold books 
and manuscripts for the weight of the paper. Only 
about 15,000 volumes ever reached Santiago, where the}^ 
must raise a blush on the face of any Chilean who is 
capable of feeling shame for such barbarous acts. This 
abominable crime, and the destruction of his private 
house and library, must have caused bitter anguish to a 
man so devoted to literature as Don Ricardo Palma, 



I 



LITERATURE OE PERU 473 

But he at once set to work manfully to repair the evil. 
It has already been seen with what public spirited 
industry and energy he devoted himself to the up-hill 
task of collecting all the books that could be rescued 
from destruction, and of obtaining new ones, until at 
length he had the happiness of seeing the national 
library opened once more. 

Don Ricardo Palma has done much, by the publica- 
tion of his "Tradiciones, " to throw light on several 
little known periods of Peruvian history, and to give 
interest to many historical characters of whom little 
more than their names were previously known to the 
general reader, by connecting them with well told 
anecdotes and incidents. But Palma's name will also be 
gratefully remembered as the author of the noble pro- 
test against modern vandalism, and as the restorer of 
the national library. 

The authors who have devoted their studies to the 
histor}^ of Peru have done much to throw light on the 
past, wdiile their publications have benefited their con- 
temporaries and done honor to their countr}-. Don 
Sebastian Lorente wrote the first complete history of 
Peru, and was engaged in the work of teaching history 
for forty years. His Peruvian history consists of five 
volumes, and is written in a pleasant and agreeable 
style. It is generally accurate and, without displaying 
any ver}^ deep or recondite research, is a most valuable 
contribution to historical literature. It supplies Peru- 
vians with the means of obtaining a thoroughly good 
knowledge of their country's history in a pleasant way. 
When Senor Lorente died, in November, 1884, he was 
deeply lamented by a large circle of literary friends, and 
was followed to the grave by the professors and students 
of the university. 



474 A HISTORY OF PERU 

The biographical and historical work of General 
Mendiburu represents a vast amount of literary labor by 
a man who was, during the greater part of his life, lead- 
ing an active military and political career. Born at 
Lima, in 1805, of good Spanish parentage, Mendiburu 
was one of the ardent youths who escaped from college, 
in 1821, to join the patriot army of San Martin. He 
was at the battle of Torata, under Miller, but was 
captured by the Spaniards, and remained a prisoner 
until the end of the war. In 1827 he was private secre- 
tary to Santa Cruz at Lima, and served under Salaverry 
at Socabaya. In 1839 Gamarra made him minister of 
war, and he was minister of finance under Echenique. 
In 1851 General Mendiburu went to England, as min- 
ister, to regulate the public debt. He had traveled in 
Spain and other parts of Europe; and after his return to 
Peru he must have devoted much of his time to researches 
connected with his great literary enterprise. The first 
part of his ''Diccionario Historico-Biografico del Peru" 
includes the Incas, and the period of Spanish domina- 
tion, and is in eight thick volumes. It was the study of 
the old chronicles v\rhich led General Mendiburu to 
entertain the idea of preparing a work which would be 
useful to his countrymen. As his notes accumulated 
under his hand, he modestly came to the conclusion that 
he had not the ability necessary for the composition of a 
history. He, therefore, resolved that the results of his 
labors should take the form of a biographical dictionary. 
The notices are full, and many of them contain informa- 
tion which is wholly new. The work is well and judici- 
ously executed, and when it is considered that it is the 
production of one man in the evening of life, after a 
very busy public career, the labor must be pronounced 
to have been colossal. Invaluable to students of Peru- 




Francisco de Paula G. Vigil. 



LITERATURE OF PERU 475 

vian history, it is a monument to the untiring research 
and persevering industry of a Peruvian. General 
Mendiburu died, at the age of eighty, before the pubh- 
cation of his great work was completed, on the 21st of 
January, 1885. 

Ten years and more senior to Mendiburu, another 
student takes a high rank in the world of letters. Fran- 
cisco de Paula Gonzalez Vigil, a native of Tacna, was 
born in 1792, and studied at Arequipa under the good 
bishop Chavez de la Rosa. Vigil took orders and was 
rector of the college at Arequipa, where he had studied 
during eight years of his boyhood. But this did not pre- 
vent him from taking an active part in politics, as member 
for his native town, in congress after congress. Joining 
the minority against Bolivar under the lead of Dr. Luna 
Pizarro, Vigil defended the cause of freedom with bril- 
liant eloquence. In 1832 he delivered his famous speech 
against the government of Gamarra, and soon afterward 
he became editor of a liberal and reforming periodical 
entitled ''Genio del Rimac." But in 1836 he accepted 
the appointment of director of the national library at 
Lima, and he devoted twenty years of the latter part of 
his life to the preparation of his great work against the 
pretensions of the court of Rome. The '^Defensa de la 
autoridad de los Gobiernos contra las pretensiones 
de la Curia Romana," (4 Vols., 1856) is a work of 
immense erudition, in which Vigil advocates liberal 
and enlightened views with ability and eloquence. 
The author boldly assails the the right of popes to 
publish bulls or confirm bishops. He shows that 
in early times, the cardinals were not the sole 
electors of the popes, and that Gregory the Great 
was chosen by the clergy and people of Rome. Passing 
from the subject of papal usurpation to the social con- 



476 A HISTORY OF PERU 

dition of the Romish clergy, he earnestl)^ advocates the 
aboHtion of perpetual monastic vows, and the marriage of 
priests. The ''Defensa de los Gobiernos" soon found a 
place in the Tndex Expurgatorius,' and in June, 1851, 
Dr. Vigil, and all who sold, bought, or read his book 
were excommunicated. Nothing daunted by the papal 
frowns Dr. Vigil forthwith published an epitomized edi- 
tion of his work, to ensure the more extensive circulation 
of the views it advocates. This edition contains a mild 
reproof to his holiness for the want of Christian charit}' 
displa5'ed in the curses of the excommunication. Dr. 
Vigil lived on, amidst the veneration of his countrymen, 
for many 3^ears, in the firm belief that a future generation 
will adopt the measures he advocated. He wrote several 
political pamphlets, in one of which, entitled ^'Paz 
Perpetua, " he urged the settlement of all disputes be- 
tween South American states, by arbitration. The good 
old man was director of the National Librar}' until his 
death, which took place June loth, 1875. He was 
taken awa}^ in time to save him from bitter anguish. 
The barbarous Chilean invasion, the dreadful slaughter 
around his native town, and the destruction of his 
beloved library would have broken his heart. 

Mariano Felipe Paz Soldan, like General Mendiburu, 
was an active public servant as well as a laborious 
and voluminous author. His family, originally from 
Castille, settled in Peru about 1720. Mariano was 
one of several illustrious brothers, and was born at 
Arequipa in August, 1821. He was educated at the 
college of his native town, and in 1843 he w^as called to 
the bar. In 1845 he became a judge of the court at 
Truxillo, and from that time he devoted himself, during 
many years, to the improvement of the Peruvian prisons. 
In 1853 he left Peru with the sole object of studying the 



LITERATURE OE PERU 477 

penitentiary system in the United States. Having 
visited numerous prisons, and collected documentary 
information of all kinds, he proceeded to more minute 
investigations. He remained at some prisons for weeks 
together, to practice the life of the convicts and ascer- 
tain its effect on himself. He also acquired a practical 
knowledge of the architectural work, and of questions 
relating to building materials. All Paz Soldan undertook 
was characterized by thoroughness. The result of these 
studies was a valuable and interesting work entitled 
"Informe Sobre las Penitenciarias." When General 
Castilla acceded to power in 1855, he sent for Paz 
Soldan, heard all he had to say, and gave him carte 
blanche. In 1856 the Lima penitentiary was com- 
menced under his auspices, everything being arranged 
on the best American models. This great public work 
is a lasting monument of the philanthropy, perseverance 
and talent of its originator. 

Paz Soldan was minister of foreign affairs in 1857, and 
afterward of public works. It was then that he began 
to work at the Peruvian atlas, and at the "Geografia del 
Peru," the physical portion being written by his brother, 
Mateo. Paz Soldan was six months in Europe arrang- 
ing for the publication of the atlas. In 1866 he pub- 
lished his first historical work entitled ''Historia del 
Peru Independiente." Under President Balta he was 
minister of justice and education, when he founded a 
school of sciences, and re-organized the universities of 
Cuzco and Arequipa, besides establishing numerous 
secondary schools. In 1877 appeared his "Diccionario 
Geografico Estadistico del Peru," in which every town, 
village, river and mountain is entered, with much statis- 
tical detail, and several full and valuable notices. In 
1879 he was again minister of justice, and he was for 



478 A HISTORY OF PERU 

many years director of public works. In the year 1878 
he founded the "Revista Peruana," edited by his son, 
Carlos, an excellent literary periodical, full of valuable 
historical and archaeological information. But it came 
to an end when the Chilean war broke out. 

When the Chileans occupied Lima, Paz Soldan re- 
mained, in the hope of serving his country if there was 
any indication of a desire for a reasonable settlement. 
But the lawless tyranny of Lynch became so intolerable 
that the illustrious statesman was obliged to take refuge 
at Buenos Ayres, where he was welcomed with warm 
cordiality. Here he published his " Historia de la 
Guerra del Pacifico." Dr. Paz Soldan returned to 
Lima in 1886, almost broken-hearted at the condition of 
his country. He died on the last day of that year, and 
his body was followed to the grave b}' a large concourse 
of his countrymen. Dr. Alvarez and Dr. Larrabure y 
Unanue delivered the funeral orations. Mariano Paz 
Soldan was a noble type of a public servant. His whole 
life was devoted to the service of his countr}^, and all he 
did was practical and thorough. His humane endeavors 
to ameliorate the condition of criminals formed the 
opening of a career which was steadily continued on the 
same lines of usefulness and thoroughness through a 
long life. As an author Paz Soldan showed the same 
qualities. Useful and painstaking research resulted in 
the production of books of permanent usefulness. In 
private life Paz Soldan was upright, generous and warm- 
hearted. 

Dr. Eugenio Larrabure y Unanue, who is the author 
of an important history of the conquest of Peru, not yet 
published, has been commissioned by the Congress to 
write a history of the republic. A biographical work on 
the viceroys of Peru with portraits of each, is being 



LITER A TURK OF PER U 479 

prepared by most competent hands, Palma, Larrabure, 
Lavalle, and Vivero. 

Don Jose Toribio Polo is one of those dihgent students 
of ancient documents, who have done so much to throw 
light on the earlier history of their country, of late years. 
All he has published is valuable, especially his ecclesias- 
tical history of the dioceses of Arequipa, Guamanga and 
Truxillo. Sefior Polo is also an acute but fair critic, and 
in his reviews of the great work of Mendiburu, he may 
be said to have increased its value by pointing out omis- 
sions and mistakes which were inevitable in so colossal 
an undertaking. The history of the Jesuits in Peru by 
Don Enrique Torres Saldomando, also bears evidence 
of much careful research, and the men who introduced 
the printing press, who composed grammars and diction- 
aries of the native languages, and who brought to light 
the virtues of Peruvian bark, certainly deserve a biogra- 
pher. Reminiscences of one who has traveled much 
over the wildest parts of the country, and gained much 
experience, both officially and as an explorer, are always 
interesting, and in a notice of modern Peruvian litera- 
ture, the charmmg little work of Don Modesto Basadre, 
entitled ''Riquezas Peruanas, " certainly deserves a 
place. Here will be found full accounts of the deserts 
of Tarapaca, of the gold diggings of Caravaya, of the 
valuable animal and vegetable products, of peculiar 
communities of Indians, such as the Urus and Calagua- 
yas, incidentally scattered among personal reminiscences, 
in a series of pleasantly written articles. 

Local history and topography have received a fair 
share of attention. The ''Estadistica de Lima" of Don 
Manuel A. Fuentes is an exhaustive and very meritor- 
ious work, and it was followed in 1866, by a more popular 
book on the capital of Peru, written in English. Don 



48o A HISTORY OF PERU 

Jose G. Clavero has since published a little volume of 
well arranged statistics, entitled "Demografia de Lima." 
In like manner the history of Arequipa has been written 
b}' Don Juan Valdivia, and Cuzco has found an annalist 
in Don Pio Benigno Mesa. 

The principal legal writers of Peru have been Toribio 
Pacheco and Jose Silva Santistevan, whose manuals of 
civil and criminal law are much used; Villaran, Herrera 
and Pardo, who have written on international and con- 
stitutional law; Meriategui the author of a work on the 
concordats; Fuentes, who published a dictionary of 
Peruvian legislature in two volumes, and Dr. Garcia 
Calderon, who was president for a few months in the 
days of calamit}^, and whose dictionar}' of the jurispru- 
dence of Peru is a standard work of great value. Felipe 
Masias has written a useful manual of political econom}^ 

Peruvians have devoted much attention to a study of 
the ancient history and civilization of the Incas. The 
father of these researches, since the independence, was 
Don Mariano Rivero of Arequipa, who published his 
great work at Vienna — '^Antiguedades Peruanas" in 
conjunction with Dr. Von Tschudi. In concluding his 
task Seiior Rivero expressed an ardent hope that he 
might prove to be a pioneer in this interesting branch of 
research, and that, among the next generation of Peru- 
vians, he might have many followers. This hope has 
been realized. Don Jose Sebastian Barranca, who is a 
naturalist as well as an antiquary, translated the Inca 
drama of "Ollanta" in 1868, with an interesting introduc- 
tion. In 1874 Dr. Jose Fernandez Nodal printed the 
Quichua text, with a Spanish translation in parallel col- 
umns, and in 1878, Don Gavino Pacheco Zegarra pub- 
lished another version at Paris, with numerous valuable 
notes. The work of Zegarra is the most important that 



LITER A TURE OF PER U 48 1 

has appeared on the subject of Inca literature. This 
learned Peruvian combines a knowledge of Quichua 
acquired in his childhood, with extensive learning, 
literary skill, and considerable critical sagacit}-. Other 
Peruvian students have recentl}^ applied critical and 
scholastic learning of no mean order to an examination 
of questions relating to disputed or obscure points con- 
nected with the religion and language of the Incas. One 
of the results of these studies has been the interesting 
and ver}^ remarkable essay on the word ^'Uirakocha," 
written by Dr. Leonardo Villar of Cuzco, an eminent 
Quichua scholar, in 1887. Among younger men, Don 
Martin Antonio Mujica of Huancavelica is making 
Quichua a serious study, and there is certainly a wide 
and noble field for young students in the land of the In- 
cas, which is well deserving of careful and diligent cul- 
tivation. 

Journalism in Peru has found support from men of 
distinction both as politicians and authors, including the 
venerable Francisco Xavier Mariategui, secretary to the 
first congress, who died at the age of ninety-one, 
in December, 1884; Dr. Francisco de Paula Vigil, 
Heredia, Pacheco, Cisneros, and UUoa. The oldest 
existing newspaper in Lima is the ''Comercio," a dail}^ 
journal which was commenced in 1839, by Don Manuel 
Amunategui. This venerable journalist was a hero of 
Ayacucho. He was a strong opponent of negro slavery, 
and translated ''Uncle Tom's Cabin," (La choza del 
Tio Tom.") The leading men of all classes used to 
assemble at his evening parties in the office of the 
*'Comercio," and he continued to direct the editorial 
policy of the newspaper until his death in October, 1886. 
The other newspapers at Lima, previous to the Chilean 
invasion, were the ''Nacional" founded in 1865, ''La 



482 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Patria," a religious periodical called ''La Sociedad," 
*'La Opinion Nacional," a medical gazette, a mining 
review, an educational publication, and the ''Revista 
Peruana" edited by Don Carlos Paz Soldan. 

During the dismal period of Chilean occupation there 
was no free press; but on the day that the marauder 
Lynch departed, the ''Comercio" re-appeared. It was fol- 
lowed, in a few days, by the ''Nacional" and the "Opinion 
Nacional." In 1886 a well edited illustrated paper was 
commenced, called "El Peru Ilustrado. " Some thought- 
ful and suggestive articles appeared in the "Opinion 
Nacional," in 1888, on the economic situation of Peru, 
from the pen of Don Luis Larranaga y Lo3''ola, who is a 
political economist, and a student of John Stuart Mill and 
Ricardo. Similar communications on subjects of general 
interest appear in the newspapers from time to time; so 
that, besides supplying news, journalism is not neglecting 
the more important dut}^ of informing and instructing 
the people. 

" El Ateneo de Lima" is a literary monthl}^ periodical 
which was commenced under most favorable auspices in 
1886. Its contributors are Dr. Larrabure y Unanue, 
Ricardo Palma, and Lavalle; and it contains interesting 
articles on literature, histor}^, and engineering. It is 
connected with a literary club, the president of which is 
Dr. Eugenio Larrabure y Unanue, which holds evening 
meetings. The club, also called "El Ateneo," offers 
prizes for poetic or literar3Mvork of approved excellence, 
and discusses questions relating to politics, literature 
and science, the subjects of which have been previous^ 
announced. 

Another important step in the cause of literature and 
science, has been the foundation of the Geographical 
Society of Lima under the active patronage of the 



LITERATURE OF PERU 483 

government, indeed in connection with the ministry of 
foreign affairs. The president ifi Dr. Luis Carranza, 
and the secretary, Don Gavino Pacheco Zegarra, the 
translator of '^Ollanta". Dr. Carranza is a physician 
and man of science, and is editor of the ''Comercio." 
He has traveled over a great part of Peru, and is an 
intelligent and thoughtful observer. His numerous 
articles, which have been published in a collected form, 
comprise discussions on the acclimatization of the white 
race in the tropics, the climate of the Peruvian coast, 
the exploration of the Apurimac and other rivers, 
descriptive notes of a journey in the Sierra, and some 
very interesting essays on the character and condition of 
the Inca Indians. The numbers of the society's journal 
which have already appeared, give excellent promise, 
containing papers relating to modern exploration and 
questions of boundaries, as well as communications on 
historical topography, including a most interesting de- 
scription of the battle-field of Chupas, by the president. 
The death of the learned Italian, Antonio Raimondi, 
leaving his great work on Peru incomplete, imposed 
upon the government an important duty connected with 
the large mass of materials that he had collected. The 
value of such an institution as the Geographical Society 
of Lima was then felt. A committee of five of its 
members was formed, to make an inventory of the maps 
and manuscripts collected by Raimondi for his vv^ork, 
and to advise the government on the course that should 
be pursued with regard to them. In work of this kind, 
and as a centre of geographical and topographical 
information, the Geographical Society will become a 
most helpful department in connection with all under- 
takings for the advancement of knowledge, and for the 
improvement of the country. 



484 A HISTORY OF PERU 

A brief review of the progress of literature in Peru is 
necessar}^ for a proper understanding of the history of 
the country, for it conveys an idea of the movement of 
thought, and of the advances that have been made 
by the people in mental culture, as well as of the 
extent to which intellectual progress has been checked 
or promoted by the political environment. The survey 
cannot be held to be unsatisfactory. We not only find 
play of fancy and exercise of imagination in plenty, but 
also those qualities of laborious industry and thoughtful 
study which promote research and lead to its results 
being utilized. Not only have fiction and poetry been 
cultivated with some success, but good work has also 
been done in the fields of law, history, topography, phil- 
ology and statistics. It is very far from being a barren 
land — this region of Peruvian literature — and its fruitful 
harvest gives promise of further development, which will 
re-act favorably on the general progress of the country. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

THE WEALTH OF PERU 

There are few countries in the world which possess 
ever}' variety of cHmate, and can rear every kind of pro- 
duct within their Hmits, that include the deserts of Ara- 
bia, the warm valleys of the Antilles, the tropical forests 
of Africa, the vine clad slopes of Italy, the temperate 
plains of central Europe, the lofty mountain slopes of 
the Alps, and the icy peaks and ridges of Norway, com- 
bined with mineral wealth unequalled elsewhere. Such 
an extraordinary combination can only exist within the 
region of the trade winds, where a chain of mountains 
of great height causes the necessary atmospheric phe- 
nomena; and Peru alone supplies the required conditions. 

A land so richly endowed by nature needs one thing 
which Peru does not possess. It must have the popu- 
lation, without which its wealth is dormant. The land 
of the Incas once supported a people which not only 
needed every inch of ground now under cultivation to 
sustain them, but which extended the cultivated area, by 
terrace cultivation and by vast S3^stems of irrigation, far 
beyond, over tracts of country now waste and deserted. 
Immigration and peace are the means of restoring the 
prosperity of the Incas, and of utilizing the enormous 
and varied wealth which is offered by nature with so 

lavish a hand. 

485 



486 A HISTORY OF PERU 

The history of Peru will fitly conclude with , a general 
review of those rich products which are only found to- 
gether in the land of the Incas and which, outside Peru, 
would have to be sought for in every region in the world. 
The most remarkable thing is that the arid deserts and 
rock}^ islets off the coast are as rich in valuable products 
as the most fertile valleys. It is true that the guano is 
nearly exhausted, but a still more lucrative source of 
profit is taking its place. From 1846 to 1872, the Chin- 
cha Islands, off Pisco, yielded enormous supplies of 
guano, 8,000,000 tons having been taken in the years be- 
tween 1853 and 1872, but in the latter year the export to 
foreign countries ceased, the deposit being nearly ex- 
hausted. Guano is still taken from the north Chincha 
Island for use in the estates near the adjacent coast. 
TheGuanape Islands, about thirty-two miles from Santa, 
were first worked in i86g, and in 1872 the deposits were 
calculated at 460,000 tons. The three little Macabi Is- 
lands, eight miles from the land, off Malabrigo, were first 
worked in 1870, and in 1872 the estimate quantity of 
guano was 400,000 tons. Further north are the two 
Lobos Islands, which contain large deposits. The gua- 
no of Peru has been conceded to the Peruvian Corpora- 
tion, and their agent has reported that besides Lobos 
de Afuera, there are still 700.000 tons on the various 
islets. 

The resources of the coast valleys and deserts of Peru, 
important as they are now, could be extended and in- 
creased considerably. Commencing our survey from the 
north, and landing where Pizarro and his destroyers first 
set foot on the land of the Incas, at Tumbez, we find 
that the desert between the river Tumbez and the Chira, 
the next river to the south, has recently become a scene 
of great activity, owing to the discovery of almost inex- 



THE WEALTH OF PERU 487 

hauslible supplies of petroleum. The distance between 
the two rivers is about ninety miles, and the desert is a 
strip of land between the sea and the hills of Mancora 
which are about 3,000 to 4,000 feet high. Along the 
coast there are steep cliffs rising to a height of from 
two hundred to three hundred feet, and above them is 
the tablazo or desert. The surface of the desert forma- 
tion is generally calcareous sandstone, below which there 
are alternating layers of pudding-stone and shell marl in 
horizontal strata at least two hundred feet thick. Under 
the shell rock there is a bed of compact argillaceous 
shales tilted at a considerable angle, with thinner beds 
over them of fuller's earth, in some places. It has long 
been known that pitch occurred in these formations, es- 
pecially at Parifias on the coast. It was used, even as 
far back as Spanish times, to coat the insides of wine 
jars at Pisco and Moquegua. But it was not until i860 
that the idea of refining petroleum was conceived and 
attempted at the estates of Mancora and Zorritos, then 
the property of Don Diego de Lama. Some years later 
a house of business at Lima established expensive works 
at Negritos, but the experiments failed through want of 
acquaintance with the proper methods of working. Mr. 
Prentice, a large proprietor of oil works in Pennsylvania, 
after making several trial borings, applied to the Peru- 
vian government for a cession of the whole oil region in 
1876, but his application was refused. American and 
English engineers who visited the region, came to the 
conclusion that it was the second petroleum region in 
the world, as regards extent and probable yield. 

Two large establishments are actually working on the 
Peruvian coast, between the Tumbezand the Chira. The 
first was formed by an Italian named Piaggio, at Zorritos, 
and his kerosene obtained a prize at the Berlin exhibition 



488 A HISTORY OF PERU 

of 1884. Signer Piaggio has eleven wells at work, pro- 
vided with pumps so as to supply the kerosene refinery 
as required. The refinery is able to turn out 6,000 boxes 
of kerosene a month. The establishment includes all 
necessary work-shops and store-houses, and dwelling 
houses for the people employed. Altogether there are 
twenty-five buildings, besides a small hamlet called 
Sechurita about a mile off, for the laborers, of whom 
there are four hundred. 

The other works belonging to the London and Pacific 
Petroleum Company, are at Parinas and Talara, further 
south; having been purchased from Don Genaro Hel- 
guero in 1887 for ^20,000. Mr. Tweddle, the purchaser 
and manager, a most intelligent and enterprising engin- 
eer, who has a large acquaintance with the Russian 
petroleum works at Baku, has established the most ex- 
tensive works in Peru, with a capital of ;£25o,ooo. At 
Negritos there are nine wells yielding 53,000 gallons 
daily. A powerful pump drives the oil down a channel 
to the tanks at the Talara refinery. There are two stills, 
which are capable of refining 25,500 gallons a day, and 
there is another in preparation, for it is expected that the 
yield will soon be over 200,000 gallons a day. Six iron 
tanks are finished, and others are in preparation, to be 
stationed at the principal ports of Peru, and to be ready 
at all times, to meet the demand for petroleum, kerosene, 
and lubricating oil. Machinery and work-shops are set 
up in a large masonry building, and they are able to 
turn out 5,000 tin cases, and 3,000 wooden boxes a day. 
The tin boxes are filled in another building by means of 
a special apparatus. A light-house has been erected at 
Talara, and a mole is under construction, which will ac- 
commodate six steamers at a time. Formerly Talara 
had no other water than what was brought by mules from 







Map Showing Location of Petroleum wells. 



THE WEALTH OF PERU 489 

a distance of eighteen miles. Now fresh water is obtained 
from wells by means of wind-mills, and is conducted to 
the settlement by a channel four miles long, and it is 
sufficient not only for all the requirements of the people, 
but to irrigate several vegetable gardens. Five tank 
steamers have been ordered from England, and one has 
arrived, their object being to transport the petroleum and 
kerosene along the coast, and keep the tanks supplied. 
The railroads have already begun to use petroleum in- 
stead of coal for the locomotives, at a saving of forty per 
cent. Contracts for the supply of this fuel for the Truxillo, 
Central and Southern railways of Peru have already 
been concluded. 

Further south still, the peninsula of Point Aguja, in 
the Sechura district, has been found to contain extensive 
deposits of petroleum close to the sea-shore, which, no 
doubt, will shortl}^ be worked; and petroleum has also 
been discovered in all the coast from the Silla de Payta 
to the present workings at Negritos. 

The importance of the discovery of such extensive de- 
posits of petroleum can hardly be exaggerated. It goes far 
to make up for the loss of Tarapaca. Already used for 
the locomotives, it will soon be adopted as fuel for the 
steamers on the coast, and for the engines at the sugar 
estates, as well as for the nitrate works in Tarapaca,, 
while a trade will be established to supply China and 
Japan. 

The petroleum region of Peru is very far from being 
entirely desert. It fringes the rich valleys of the Chira 
and the Piura, with a population of 76,000 souls; and 
there are upward of three hundred farms on the river 
banks, producing cotton and maize, besides fruits and 
vegetables. These valleys, and those of Yea and Palpa 
to the south of Lima, are the chief cotton producing 



490 A HISTORY OF PERU 

areas of Peru. The Peruvian cotton (^GossyfiuiijL Barba- 
de7ise) is indigenous and perennial. It was cultivated by 
the subjects of the Grand Chimu, and afterward b}" the 
Incas, who irrigated their cotton fields by channels taken 
from reservoirs, and picked and cleaned it by means of a 
machine closel}^ resembling the Indian cJnii-ka. The 
climate of Piura is dry and hot from November to May, 
and owing to thebrilliancy with which the celestial bodies 
shine in this season, it has become proverbial to sa}^ "as 
clear as the moon of Payta." But rain is falling in the 
Andes, and the rivers are full. In the moist season, from 
May to November, there is drizzling rain {^garua), and a 
wet mist (jiiebla), occasionally. The cotton plants are 
either planted in the vega near the river bank, where they 
get an annual watering from the overflow, or on the ad- 
jacent low land, when they must be watered by hand 
until the roots penetrate for a good depth. The plants 
receive no further care, and they are never pruned, yet 
they yield every six months, and go on bearing for six or 
seven years. Then the plant deteriorates, the bushes 
are stubbed up, and the ground re-sown. 

Formerly the inhabitants raised the cotton crops and 
there were no large estates. But about thirty j^ears ago 
Mr. Garland and Don Pedro Arese began to work a large 
cotton estate at Monte Abierto, near Tangarara, in the 
Chira valley, and Mr. Stirling purchased a tract of land 
near Am.otape; with cotton-gins and a centrifugal pump 
for irrigating the fields. There are one hundred and 
ninety-three plants to an acre, 5nelding 1,543 to 2,316 
pounds of very white and soft cotton, with a length of staple 
only inferior to Sea Island and Egyptian, and stronger 
than either. Mr. Stirling examined the irrigation works 
constructed by the Incas in the upper part of the Chira 
valley, and was astonished at their magnitude, and at 



THE WEALTH OF PERU 491 

the engineering skill with which they were constructed. 
In those days the two valleys, according to a census 
made for Archbishop Loaysa, supported a population of 
193,000; and a simple restoration of the irrigation works 
would again quadruple the productive power of the land. 
The same remark applies to nearly all the coast valleys. 
At present 60,000 cwts. of cotton are exported from Pay- 
ta, worth ^1,200,000. 

But Piura is not the only source of cotton supply in 
Peru, although it is probably the most important. There 
are cotton estates in the valleys of Yea, Palpa, San 
Xavier, and Nasca to the south of Lima, with cotton- 
gins for cleaning, and powerful presses. Cotton is also 
grown in the valleys of Lambayeque, Jequetepeque, 
Truxillo, Nepeiia, Chiclayo, and Casma, between Piura 
Lima. It is one of the three principal coast harvests, the 
other two being sugar and vines. In 1877 the value of 
the exported cotton was $768,000, 

Piura also exports tobacco (309,341 kilos, worth 
$137,443), and straw hats (26,205 kilos, worth $369,092). 
The hats are plaited by Indians living in the small towns 
of Colan, Catacaos, Sechura, Motupe and Eten — the 
last vestiges of the ancient coast civilization. At 
Sechura their language became extinct almost within 
living memory, and at Eten it is still spoken. 

The Piura and Chira valleys enjoy the great advantage 
of having a railway sixty-three miles long, which con- 
veys the produce of the estates to the port at Payta. A 
similar advantage is enjoyed by the next group of val- 
leys to the southward, which are watered by the rivers 
Morrope, Lambayeque, and Sana. Here there are two 
railroads running from the ports of Pimentel and Eten to 
the cities of Lambayeque and Chiclayo, and to the centre 



492 A HISTORY OF PERU 

of a productive rice-growing district at t'errenafe, a 
length altogether of fifty miles. 

The sugar industry begins in the Sana valle}^, and is 
practiced in most of the coast districts as far as Chincha 
to the south of Lima. Many of the estates are worked 
with machinery brought from Europe; but there are also 
numerous small proprietors who use the native trapiche 
or sugar mill worked by a yoke of oxen. The districts 
are provided with railroads, which will shortl}' be ex- 
tended, so that in most of the valleys, there will be facilities 
for sending the produce of the sugar estates to the coast. 
Next to Sana comes the valley of Jequetepeque, which 
leads up to Magdalena, within a short distance of Caxa- 
marca. A railroad has been commenced from the port 
of Pacasmayu, passing up the valle}^ to Magdalena. 
Another railroad connects the city of Truxillo with its 
port at Salaverry, a distance of eighty-five miles. 
Further south there are eight sugar estates in the valley 
of Pativilca, three in Chancay, and six in the valley of 
Caravayllo. South of Lima there are three estates with 
steam machinery in the valley of Lurin while that of 
Caiiete is one vast sheet of sugar-cane, divided among 
seven estates, with a railroad to the port at Cerro Azul. 
In the Chincha valley there are also some large estates. 
In 1859 the sugar exported from Peru was valued at 
$432,000. In 1876 the export had increased to 71,722 
tons, worth $5,851,200; whilst in 1877 it rose to 85,000 
tons, worth $6,528,000. Of this quantity 63,370 tons 
went to Great Britain, 18,000 to Chile, and 6,000 to 
other countries, leaving 12,000 for home consumption. 
Great loss and destruction attended the Chilean invasion, 
but the sugar industry is rapidly recovering. There are 
also some fine sugar estates in the interior, especially in 
the valley of Abancay. 




Map Showing Railroads. 



THE WEALTH OF PERU 493 

The principal vine growing valleys are Pisco and 
Yea, which are connected by a railroad eighty-four 
miles long, some of the valleys round Arequipa, and 
Moquegua and Locum ba in the south. Moquegua is 
also connected with its port at Ilo by a railroad sixty- 
three miles long. Pisco is famous for a spirit distilled 
from the grape, called "Pisco," and also for a delicious 
liqueur called "Italia." Excellent wine is also made 
on the Elias estates, as well as at Moquegua and Lc- 
cumba. There are olive plantations in the valley of 
Tambo near Arequipa, and around Locumba ; and the 
cultivation of mulberries for silk worms, and of cochi- 
neal have been successfully tried. 

There are some fine grazing farms on the coast, and 
crops of lucerne are raised in all the valleys. Vegeta- 
bles of all kinds are grown in abundance, and ever}^ 
estate has its fruit trees, some indigenous, such as the 
chirimoya, granadilla, palta, lucma, and pacca}' ; and 
others naturalized. Oranges, lemons, and citrons are 
in great abundance. The most delicious dulces, or fruit 
preserves in the world are made by the Peruvians. 

The habitable and cultivable area on the coast might 
be quadrupled b}^ the construction of irrigation w^ork. 
The ruins of such works are to be seen from one end 
of the countr}^ to the other, monuments of the civili- 
zation of the Incas, and lasting reproaches to their 
successors. In some places these works of the Incas 
are kept in repair, and this is particularl}^ the case at 
Nasca. This little oasis has forty miles of desert on 
one side, and over a hundred on the other. The valley 
of Nasca descends from the mountains by a gentle slope 
for about twenty miles, widening as it approaches the 
coast, and is hemmed in b}^ spurs of the cordillera. The 
whole is a rich expanse of cotton fields, vineyards and 



494 A HISTORY OF PERU 

fruit gardens. Yet all that nature has supplied is a 
minute water course, dry for eleven months in the year. 
The engineering skill of the Incas had contended with 
the arid obstacles of nature, and the wilderness of pain 
(^Nanasca — pain in Quichua) was converted into a para- 
dise of delight. High up the valley are the main con- 
duits, four feet high with sides and roof of masonry. 
As they descend, smaller conduits branch from them, 
which ramify over the valley, supplying each estate, 
and feeding the little streams that irrigate the fields. 
The main conduits are at first many feet below the 
surface, and there are ojos or manholes at intervals, by 
which they can be cleaned out. Before the puquios or 
channels reach the termination of cultivation, all the 
water has been exhausted. There are fifteen vine and 
cotton estates in the Nasca valley. 

This example of successful irrigation is mentioned 
here, to show how cultivation was extended in ancient 
times, and how enormously the productiveness of the 
Peruvian coast might be increased by the judicious 
execution of similar works at the present day. The 
greater part of the desert area is not rock and sand, 
but land thirsting for water. 

The fame of Peru, in former days, was founded on 
her silver mines, and it is true that the mineral wealth 
of the Andes has scarcely been exaggerated. The silver 
and copper is chiefly found in the maritime cordillera, 
and the mining industry only wants improved com- 
munication with the coast, to develop this splendid 
branch of Peruvian wealth. Out of nearly 2,000 silver 
mines, only a small proportion are being worked, and 
the rest are abandoned, some from want of capital, but 
more from want of roads. 

In Hualgayoc, near Caxamarca, there are over a hun- 



THE WEALTH OF PERU 495 

dred silver mines, and some are being worked with 
profit. Humboldt has described the silver mountain of 
Hualgayoc and the method of working, and he teils us 
that in thirty years it yielded 32,000,000 piastres of 
silver. Futher south in the Callejon de Huaylas, 
there are upward of one hundred and fifty silver mines, 
besides coal in great abundance, especially near the 
town of Carhuarz. The coal is anthracite, and is found 
in a Jurassic sandstone. It will find a market as soon 
as the railroad from the port of Chimbote to Huaraz, 
one hundred and seventy-two miles in length, is com- 
pleted. About fifty-two miles of this line are already 
opened. Cerro de Pasco, with its three hundred and 
fort3'-two silver mines, is the great centre of mining 
industry, and the district already has a local railroad 
fifteen miles long. At these mines the ore, after being 
brought to the surface, is broken into small pieces 
and sent in bags to the works, where it is ground to 
powder in a water or steam mill. It is then mixed with 
salt and toasted in earthen ovens, heated with the dung 
of llamas as fuel. The powder is then put into hide bags 
and piled on a floor of flat stones. Ten of these are 
laid in a row, making a coxofi of 6,000 pounds. The 
bags are then moistened with water, and quicksilver is 
sprinkled through a woollen cloth. The mass is well 
mixed by treading with the feet and working with hoes, 
and left to stand for some days, until the amalgama- 
tion is complete. It is then thrown into a well, a 
stream of water is turned on, and men trample and 
wash it with their feet. The amalgam sinks to the 
bottom, and the mud and water are let off. The amal- 
gam is then hung up in bags of coarse linen, and the 
quicksilver, oozing through, is caught in vessels below 
it. The residue is plata pifia or purse silver, which is 



496 A HISTORY OF PERU 

melted and run into bars. In 1877, the Cerro de Pasco 
mines produced 1,427,592 ounces of silver. The coal 
of Cerro de Pasco is bituminous. 

The next mining district, proceeding south along 
the Cordillera, is that of Yauli, where there are two 
hundred and twenty-five silver mines, one of cinnabar, 
and nine of coal. These mines are being worked by 
Messrs. Pfliicker, Montero, Llona, and Oscar Huren. 
Further on, in the Huarochiri province, there are one 
hundred and seventeen silver mines, worked by Messrs. 
Garland and the Pacacocha Mining Company. In 
Huancavelica and Castro Vireyna there are fifty-four 
silver mines chiefly owned by Messrs. Pfliicker, and four 
important cinnabar mines, which have recently been 
taken in hand again, after an interval of abandonment. 
In Cailloma, a province of Arequipa, there are twenty- 
four silver mines, and a company working them. 

The silver mines of Puno have been famous since 
the days of Salcedo and the Viceroy Count of Lemos. 
There are upward of fifty, among them the old mine 
of Laycacota or Manto mine first discovered by Salcedo. 
It was entered by a socabon, or horizontal cutting in 
the side of the hill, full of water; with an iron canoe 
to navigate it. This canal is eight hundred and fiftv 
yards long with six locks, and then an iron tramway 
for 1,700 yards, and then five hundred 3^ards on foot; 
so that the mine penetrated for two miles and a half 
into the bowels of the earth. The Manto mine was 
worked by an Englishman named Begg, from 1827 to 
1840, and then by a native company until 1856; but 
now the work has been transferred to a mine higher up 
the hill, called Cachi Vieja, owned by Messrs. Busta- 
mante and Barreda. There are two quicksilver mines 
in the Puno district belonging to Messrs. Echenique 



THE WEALTH OF PERU 497 

and Costa. The copper mines of Peru are in Caxamarca 
and Recuay : and several in the coast district of Acari 
owned b}^ Messrs. Thorndike and Vicuna. 

Gold is found everywhere in Peru. There are three 
gold mines in Huamachuco, two in Caxamarca, and 
several gold deposits in the province of Pallasca, which 
aie now being successfully worked. At Nasca on the 
coast, there is gold, and ei^ht goldmines in the neigh- 
boring mountains of Lucanas. In the department of 
Arequipa there are several gold deposits and a com- 
pany was recently formed in England, to work the 
two gold mines of Montes Claros. But the most fa- 
mous sources of gold supply, are the washings of Sandia 
and Caravaya, of which upward of fifty have been 
claimed and registered. Nearly three hundred years 
ago Garcilasso de la Vega said that the richest gold 
mines in Peru were those of Caravaya, and it is recorded 
that two nuggets of immense size were sent home to 
the Emperor Charles V. in 1553. The gold mines of 
Caravaya and the returns from them, are mentioned in 
the reports of several viceroys, and as late as 1852 
there was a great rush of adventurers to the gold wash- 
ings. There can be no doubt of their value, and the 
quartzose veins in the hills, where they have been ex- 
amined, as at Capac-urco, are very rich. 

In 1877, the value of the silver exported from Peru, 
was ;£575,ooo, of copper ^330,000. There is no return 
of the gold. 

The yield of wool from the flocks of alpacas and 
sheep maintained on the lofty slopes of the cordilleras 
is an important source of wealth and, as regards the 
alpacas, a source peculiar to Peru. In Spanish times 
the wool was m.anufactured into cloth, in large obrajes 
or factories, and all the clothing of the people was 



4g8 A HISTORY OF PERU 

home-made. Free trade has put an end to that state 
of things, and the wool is exported. The alpaca is a 
beautiful animal, standing about six feet, nearly half 
the height being made up by the long neck. The al- 
pacas are of several colors, generally black or coffee 
colored, with very large black eyes. The wool of the 
lambs is as fine and soft as silk, and after a year of 
growth it is a foot long. Alpaca wool was unknown 
in Europe before the independence, and it was not 
until 1835, that Messrs. Hegan of Tacna, for the 
first time, sent a few bundles to Liverpool as a sample. 
They were seen by Titus Salt of Bradford, who at once 
recognized the immense value of the wool, entered 
largely upon its manufacture, and made an enormous 
fortune. The flocks of alpacas are probably most nu- 
merous on the pampas of Umabamba, on the east side 
of Lake Titicaca, and the Indian owners sell the wool 
direct to the merchants : what they do with the enor- 
mous sums of money thus received, is unknown. The 
priest of Macusani in Caravaya,named Cabrera, succeed- 
ed in breeding a cross between a vicuna and alpaca, 
producing a delicate animal with long, silky, white 
wool. He reared a small flock of these paco vicunas, 
but they were neglected after his death, and came to 
an end. 

Mollendo, the terminus of the Puno railway on the 
sea, is the principal port for the export of wool. In 
1878, the amount of alpaca wool exported from Mol- 
lendo was 3,549,700 pounds, of vicuna wool, 21,600 
pounds, of sheeps' wool, 2,262,400 pounds. The total 
export of alpaca wool from the whole of Peru in 1877, 
was 3,561,806 pounds worth $1,740,185. The value of 
the wool of all kinds exported was $2,880,000. 

The southern Cordilleras are also the home of the lit- 



THE WEALTH OE PERU 499 

tie chinchilla, once so highly prized for its skin. It 
used to be abundant from the sources of the river Tam- 
bo, in the department of Arequipa, to the plains of 
Calama ; but it has been hunted so unceasingly that it 
has now become scarce. The chinchilla is about a 
foot long, with the tail six inches long, and the skin 
is silver grey, with white hairs on the belly. The ears 
are round, and the hair as soft as silk. It would no 
doubt be found profitable to establish chinchilla farms 
in the habitat of the animals, which is on the very 
coldest heights of the Andes. 

The vegetable products of the higher Andes are all 
indigenous, the most important being the potato. This 
tuber, now so universally cultivated, owes its domes- 
tication to the Inca Indians. It is found wild on the 
island of San Lorenzo and other parts of Peru, and 
in Chile as far south as the Chonos Archipelago. But 
the Incas, in the course of centuries, brought it to the 
highest state of perfection as a cultivated plant, and 
they still produce the best potato in the world. The 
yellow mealy potato of Huamantanga is without an 
equal. Potatoes are very useful as provisions for those 
who penetrate for days into the forests. They are 
converted into what are called chunus by being dried 
in the sun and then frozen, in which form they remain 
good for many days. There are several other edible 
roots cultivated in the higher Andes including the oca 
{oxalis tuber OS a) which has a sweetish taste, and is also 
used in the chufiu form. 

The quinua {^ChenopodiMvi qiiinoa) is cultivated at very 
great elevations in the Andes, and yields abundantly 
a small but nutritious food grain, while the young 
leaves are used to season dishes. Von Tschudi pro- 
nounced quinua to be a nutritious, wholesome, and 



500 A HISl'ORY OF PERU 

pleasant article of food. The leaves are eat^n like 
spinach, the grains are boiled in milk or broth, and 
the dried stems are used as fuel. It is the hardiest 
food grain in the world. 

There are vast areas in the temperate slopes of the 
Cordilleras admirably adapted for raising crops of wheat 
and barley. These cereals are cultivated to a certain 
extent, but there is abundant evidence that wheat cul- 
tivation was much more extensive in Spanish times, 
especially in the neighborhood of Ayacucho. Maize, 
however, is the cereal of the Incas ; and Cuzco maize 
surpasses all other kinds in size and in yield. The 
Incas made it into bread, cakes, puddings, fritters, and 
the fermented liquor from it, called acca in ancient 
times, is now universally drunk by the Indians and 
called chicJia. The stalks of the Cuzco maize grow to 
a height of fifteen feet, and the grains are four or five 
times the size of ordinary maize grains. They are 
white, red and yellow, red, yellow, and purple. Per- 
haps the finest crops are to be seen in the valley of 
Yucay near Cuzco, through which flows the river Vil- 
camayu, where the climate is like that of Italy or the 
south of France. The stalks, which are exceedingly 
rich in sweet juice, make excellent food for cattle. 

The slopes of the eastern Andes, within the Ama- 
zonian basin, gradually sinking down to the banks of 
the tributaries of the might}' river, are covered with 
tropical forests. In these ravines are raised coffee crops 
and cacao, tobacco and coca. The coffee is of excel- 
lent flavor, an^d the Yungus chocolate is considered the 
best in the world. Coca {^Erythoxylon coca) is another 
product which we owe to the Inca Indians. The coca 
leaf was the great source of comfort and enjoyment to 
the Peruvians, and it is now in demand for medicinal 



THE WEALTH OF PERU 501 

uses throughout the civilized world. Coca is cultivated 
between 5,000 and 6,000 feet above the level of the 
sea, in the warm valleys of the eastern slopes of the 
Andes, where the only variation of climate is from wet 
to dry, and where frost is unknown. It is a shrub from 
four to six feet high, the branches straight and alter- 
nate, leaves alternate and entire in form and size like 
tea leaves, flowers solitary with a small yellowish white 
corolla in five petals. Sowing is commenced in Decem- 
ber and January when the rains begin, which continue 
until April. The seeds are spread on the surface of the 
soil in a small raising ground, over which there is gen- 
erally a thatch roof. After about a fortnight they come 
up, and in the following year they are transplanted to 
ground especially prepared by thorough weeding. The 
cultivation is often in the form of terraces up the side 
of a mountain. After eighteen months the plants yield 
their first harvest, and they continue to be fertile for 
about forty years. The leaves are picked very care- 
fully, and there is a harvest three, and even four times 
in the year. The green leaves are deposited in a piece 
of cloth which each picker carries, and are then spread 
out in a drying-yard paved with slate, and dried in the 
sun. When the leaves are thoroughly dry, they are 
sewed up in ccstos or sacks made of banana leaves of 
twenty pounds each. They are also packed in tam- 
bores or drums of fifty pounds each. 

The approximate annual produce of coca in Peru, 
some years ago, was 15,000,000 pounds, the average 
yield being about eight hundred pounds an acre. No 
Indian is without his chuspa or coca bag, and he de- 
rives great enjoyment from chewing the leaves. The 
smell of the leaf is agreeable and aromatic and its prop- 
eities are to enable a great amount of fatigue to be 



502 A HISTORY OF PERU 

borne with little nourishment. The coca leaf also pre- 
vents the occurrence of difficulty of breathing in as- 
cending great heights. Applied externally it cures 
headaches. The active principle of the coca leaf, called 
cocaine, was discovered by Dr. Niemann, and has now 
been recognized as a most valuable anaesthetic. This 
has increased the demand, and so enhanced the value of 
the Peruvian coca harvests. 

The eastern forests are the home of the quinine 
yielding chinchona trees, and various species are found 
throughout their entire length. The trees flourish in a 
cool and equable temperature, in the valle5^s and ravines, 
from g,ooo to 3,000 feet above the sea. The most val- 
uable kinds are the trees yielding crown and red barks, 
which are confined to Ecuador ; and the calisa37a trees 
of Bolivia. In Peru the gray barks of Huanuco 
yield chinchonine, an alkaloid equal to quinine as a 
febrifuge when taken in larger doses, but they are of 
no value in the market. The calisaya grows in the 
Tambopata valley in Caravaya, bordering on Bolivia, 
but nowhere else in Peru. All the other chinchona 
species in Peru are worthless. But the ravines of the 
eastern Andes in Peru are admirably adapted for the 
growth of all the best kinds, and the establishment of 
numerous chinchona plantations would be a wise and 
remunerative measure. 

Further eastward, in the Amazonian forests, the 
most valuable product is India rubber. The best 
kind comes from the hevea tree of the Amazonian val- 
ley, called Para rubber from its port of shipment. 
But the castilloa tree is also found in the forests of 
Ecuador, and seems to be the kind most generally met 
with there. Mr. Spruce, however, who is the highest 
authority on India rubber trees, considers that the 



THE WEALTH OF PERU 503 

Andes separate the two kinds, the castilloa being 
found in the Ecuador forests to the west, and the hevea 
throughout the Amazonian basin up the foot of the 
eastern Andes. The Jieveas are large trees growing in 
humid tropical forests. The yield of India rubber, 
called heve in Peru, throughout the Amazonian basin is 
enormous, upward of 12,800,000 pounds, and it is to 
be lamented that no attempt has yet been made to 
cultivate the trees. For the collectors have to go fur- 
ther and further into the forests every year, to seek 
for them, and there is no attem.pt at conservancy. The 
demand for India rubber is very great, and increases 
every year. It may, therefore, be accepted when the 
means of traffic, in the Peruvian montana, is fully de- 
veloped, and steamers are running on all the navigable 
rivers, that a very extensive and lucrative trade in 
India rubber will be developed and maintained. 

The eastern slopes of the Andes, comprising what is 
called the montana, form the region for planting cacao, 
coffee, and tobacco estates, for the cultivation of coca, 
and the collection of chinchona bark. The montafia is 
approached from various starting points in the sierra. 
From Huanuco the basin of the river Huallaga is en- 
tered. The montafia of Chanchamayu is approached 
from Tarma, and in this direction there are already 
several flourishing settlements. Chanchamayu commu- 
nicates, by a road, with the river Pichis, whence there 
is a navigable route, by the Ucayali and Amazon to the 
Atlantic. A commission appointed by Basque farmers, 
visited the montana of Chanchamayu in 1*891, and se- 
lected lands for the formation of a settlement of Basque 
immigrants. These industrious and intelligent agri- 
culturists may be expected to flourish in their new 



504 A HISTORY OF PERU 

and prolific homes, while the}^ confer a benefit on the 
country of their adoption. 

From Cuzco the rich valley of Santa Ana, with a river 
communicating with the Ucayali, is reached on one 
side, and the montana of Paucartambo on the other: 
both admirably suited for the extensive cultivation of 
tropical products. Carava37a, with its fertile valleys, 
and extensive gold washings, is approached from Azan- 
garo, by way of Crucero and Macusani. There are 
estates and industries in all these divisions of the Peru- 
vian montana, but they might be multiplied a hundred 
fold, and in the future capital and enterprise mav ob- 
tain enormous wealth from this rich and fertile divi- 
sion of the republic. 

One great object, with successive governments, has 
been the exploration of all the navigable Peruvian 
tributaries of the Amazon, and the establishment of 
lines of steamers by which the estates of the montana 
might send their produce to the Atlantic. The per- 
severing work of a series of exploring expeditions has 
now resulted in a complete examination of these rivers, 
up to the point where navigation ceases. In i860 
the settlement of Yquitos was founded on the left bank 
of the Amazon, where a factory was established, and 
two steamers the "Morona" and "Pastaza" (one hundred 
and eight}^ feet long, five hundred tons, one hundred 
and sixty H. p.) began to run from Yurimagues on the 
Huallaga, to Tabatinga on the Brazilian frontier. An 
active trade sprang up, and the steamers were soon 
unable to carry the cargo offered to them. This ebb 
and flow of commerce, on the hitherto silent stream, 
has had a civilizing and humanizing effect on the wild 
Indians, and was a fair commencement giving promise 
of a brilliant future. The enlightened government of 



THE WEALTH OF PERU 505 

Don Manuel Pardo appointed a hydrographic com- 
mission to examine and report upon the distance to 
which each of the tributaries is navigable. Mr. Wer- 
themann, an engineer in the Peruvian service, explored 
the upper Maranon, and made some most interesting 
reports. In 1868 the hydrographic commission ex- 
plored the whole course of the Ucayali in the little 
steamer "Napo, " and in 1870 there was useful work done 
on the river Tambo. The river Urubamba, by which 
the valley of Santa Ana would communicate with the 
Amazon, was examined in 1871, the moriiaiia of Pau- 
cartambo was explored by an expedition under Colonel 
La Torre, and the Pichis was navigated to within a 
short distance of Chanchamayu. A commission was 
also appointed by President Pardo, in 1871, to fix the 
boundary between Brazil and Peru, and co explore the 
river Yavari. The hydrographic commission was pre- 
sided over by Admiral Tucker; and it completed the 
useful work of ascertaining the distance to which each 
river is navigable; and the points whence it will be 
necessary to make roads to the different districts of the 
montana. The exploring work is preliminary to the 
construction of roads, and the establishment of lines of 
steamers by which means the rich products of the Pe- 
ruvian forests will find their way to a market by the 
Amazon and the Atlantic. 

There are few countries in the world so blessed by 
nature as the land of the Incas, a land which includes 
within its limits the products of every clime. The 
people have passed through terrible and undeserved 
sufferinsfs, and we may now hope that a better time is 
at length dawning upon them. The two great needs 
are peace and immigration. If these are secured, there 
may still be a bright future in store for the long suf- 
fering children of the Sun. 



APPENDIX 



TRADE OF PERU 



509 



TRADE OF PERU. 

Exports from Peru during the fourth quarter ending 1890, not including the 
exports from Iquitos, on the river Amazon. 



Articles. 


Kilos. 


Value in 
Soles. 


Countries to which exported. 


Agricultural — 
Cotton 


1,513,969 

688,236 

9,884,201 

34,690 

138 

145,819 

237,646 

248,897 
239,333 


$453,326.82 

73,699-72 

1,152,054-47 

9,238.87 

20.70 

36,722.19 

68,928.85 

472- - . 

93,450-92 

25.852-45 


j England, France, Germ'y» 
1 U. S.. Chile, Mexico. 


Rice 




Sugar 


England, Chile, Colombia 


Coffee 

Cocoa 


England, Chile, Italy, Ger- 
Chile. [many. 
England, Germany, France. 


Wool, sheep 


vicuna 

Hides, dry and salted . . 

Various veg e t a bl e s , 

fruits, etc 


England. 

j England, France, Germ'y, 

( Chile, U. S., Colombia. 




$12,993,874 


$1,913,758.99 




Minerals- 
Silver and lead ores 

Gold in bars 


$2,170,277 
6,037 
5.265 

882,040 
133,510 
44,979 


$428,811.67 

4,352.40 

210,616.68 

26,933-52 

41,053-97 

3,598-32 


England, Germany, U. S., 
England. [Chile. 
\ England, France, U. S., 
( Chile, Colombia, Ecuador. 
England. 

England, Germany, Italy. 


Silver (sellada) 

Plata (pina) 


" chafalmia 

Lead in bars. 






$2,221,542,587 


$678,366.56 




Medicines- 
Coca 

Cocaina 


6,677 

930 

11,246 

4,432 
935 


$4,006.10 
2.325... 
3,936.10 

847.40 
499-52 


England, Germany. 


Cascarilla 


I. 


Roots (malta and ratan- 
ia) 


France, Germany. 










24,220 


$11,614.22 




Alcohol, wines and spir- 
its- 
Aguardiente 

Alcohol 


9,968 litres. 

382,984 " 
8,414 " 
1,721 " 


$2,006.66 

114,892.72 

2,032... 

228. . . 


Ecuador, Chile. 
Chile. Bolivia. 
Ecuador, Chile, England. 
Ecuador, U. S. 


Wines 


Various (bitters chrito\ 










Manufactured 

articles- 
Straw hats 


4,608 doz. 
359,988 lbs. 


$194.709- . . 
2,875.68 
30,301.60 


5 Colombia, Cuba, Jamaica, 
} Puerto Rico, Chile. 


Various 


Various articles 

Tobacco, honey, pota- 
toes, onions, pcj/per, 
etc. 





5IO A HISTORY OF PERU 

Total value for three mouths ending Dec. 31st, 1890 ii!f2, 950,785. 37 

With a gross weight of 15,599,624 kilos, and 403,087 litres in 
wines and spirits. 

The total annual exports may be estimated at $12,000,000 

Translated from " El Comercio," Oct. 29th, 1891 

The value only of the three principal exports to Liverpool represents about six 
millions of soles. 

In the year 1890 it was as follows. 

Sugar 380,000 sacks, at 100 kilos. Weight, 38,000,000 kilos. 

Cotton 57,699 bales, " 100 " " 5,800,000 " 

Wool 22,442 " " 70 " " 1,570,000 " 

Sugar at an average value of soles 8 pr. 100 kilos, gives $3,040,000 

Cotton " 30 " 1,740,000 

Wool, alpaca and vicuna " .45 " 706,500 

Approximate value of exports to Liverpool for 1890, or a total of $5,486,500 
TOTAL EXPORTS TO ALL COUNTRIES (approximated). 
The exports of cotton to France are also important, and to Chile about the 
the same quantity of sugar is exported as to Liverpool. 
The total exports to all countries may therefore be estimated at: 

Agricultural products (soles) $8,000,000 

Minerals 2,500,000 

Wines and spirits 500,000 

Various articles , 1,000,000 



Total exports $12,000,000 

This could be easily doubled if the taxes on exports were abolished, freeing 
mining, protecting industries, etc. 



TRADE OF PERU 



\\t 



PERU. 
Summary of imports and exports for the fourth quarter ending December, 1890. 



Countries. 



Soles. 



Imports from Exports to 



England 

Germany 

France 

Chile 

United States of America. 

China 

Italy 

Spain 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Cuba 

Bolivia 

Belgium 

Central America 

Iquique 

Puerto Rico 

Australia 

India 

Arica 

Guatemala 

Honduras 

Jamaica , 

Lobos de Afuera 

Mexico 

Pisagua 

Portugal 

San Salvador 

Tacna 

Uruguay 



1,097 

554 

425 

200 

278 

147 

122 

23 

17 

14 

12 



505-83 
930.37 
868.39 
571-37 
.372.86 
703-44 
,290.86 
756.48 
,602.80 
,049.44 
,325.60 



466.40 
417.60 



1,643,062.94 

209,195.05 

103,495.76 

351,819.90 

65,421.18 

109.44 

91.50 

73-00 

142,340-51 

77,201.73 

75,900.00 

126,928.20 



803.42 
188.96 I 

13.00 
235.00 
831.58 



350.00 
,362.00 
,715-28 

669.11 



Totals S 3,025,029.79 



85,586.80 
22,200.00 



15,620.56 



2,640.00 
9,993-34 
7,504.20 
11,591.86. 



9-40 



2,950,785-37 



CERRO DE PASCO SILVER MINES WORKING. 

The following are the number of mines working and name of 
districts (vide " Boletin de Minas," June 15th, 1891). 

District. Mines 

working. 

In Pacchi , 1 

" Desuebridora 13 

" San Rosa 30 

" Terigo and Portuchuelo 25 

" Veleria and Arenillaporta 2 

" Cayac Grande and Chico 33 

" Tanacancha 6 

" Tampa de San Juan 2 

" Tariajoica 4 

'• Malergente , 2 

Total number of mines (against 94 in 1889) 118 

This shows that the working has been more active during the 
present year in consequence of the abundance of rain. 



512 A HIST OR Y OF PER U 

The number of coal mines worked is eight. The price of coal has 
risen to 8oc. per quintal; formerly it was only 6oc. The increase in 
price is owing to the scarcity of llamas. 

The number of bars of silver cast in the year 1890 amounted to 
558; value, marcs, 168,630, being an increase of 6,948 marcs (in 1889 
538 bars: weight, 161,602). 

Information respecting gold washings being worked in the 

PROVINCE of SaNDIA, REPORTED BY Sr. BoNILLA, WHO VISITED 
THESE REGIONS IN JUNE, 189O. 

Waslniigs. — The principal washings are those formed by the rivers 
Huari-Huari, Pacchani, Puli-Puli, Huarturo or Capae, Mayu, Isil- 
luma and Challuma. The Huari-Huari rises in the eastern Cordil- 
leras at an altitude of 3,600 metres above the sea, and is from fifty to 
■one hundred metres wide, with a strong current, but navigated by 
Indians in canoes. The bed of this river is very rich in gold dust. 
At Pacayhuata Versalles and Cuchini there are numerous ancient 
remains, but now not w'orked. Until the course of the river is 
changed no important workings can be made. 

The Pacchani flows into the Huari-Huari. The washings on its 
banks are for the most part being worked. There is a large virgin 
deposit on the east bank. It would be very easy to work the washings 
without changing the course of the river. 

Rivej' Pup Piili. — There are many virgin deposits which can be 
worked without difficulty. 

River CJiallnma. — This river flows into the Huari-Huari and con- 
tains much gold, derived from the slaty quartz on its banks, depositing 
large nuggets of gold which gradually become small toward the 
mouth of the river. Washing is easily carried on in some parts. 

River Isilhivia. — The washings are only worked in a rude way by 
the Indians in basins. 

Aporovia Deposit. — This rich region was formerly worked as shown 
by the canals constructed for washing the lands, but at the present 
time it is but little worked, but it would give excellent results if 
worked by a company and capital expended. 

Cachi-Cachi Deposit. — This deposit situated about eighty-eight 
kilometres from the town of Sandia, N. W. extends for 280,000 square 
metres of rich auriferous sand. To a company of capital it would 
yield excellent results. 

Rio de la Qiiebrada. — This deposit, of great value, extending for 
2,800,000 square metres, at seventeen kilometres from San Juan, is 



TRADE OF PERU 



513 



traversed by the river of the same name, and although it was fcrmerly 
much worked, as shown by the canal (at present covered with vegeta- 
tion), which could be again made use of. This deposit is worthy of 
special attention. 

The rugged state of these regions prevents an accurate description 
of the distances being taken, but the following is an estimate of them. 

From the Puno Railway Pucara to Sandia 182 kilometres. 

" Sandia to Cuchini 239 " 

■" " San Juan 108 " 

" " Poti 64 

The rigor of the climate and the dearth of the supplies make it 
very difficult for the traveler to explore these rich, although inhospit- 
able zones. 

MINES. 
Claims registered in the Padron General De Minas for the firjt quarter of 1891. 



FIRST QUARTER OF IC 



Gold mines 95 

" washings 261 

" and silver 38 

" lead 

Silver 2,072 

" and copper 17 

" " lead 21 

" " zinc 4 

" '• quicksilver i 

Copper 32 

Quicksilver 10 

Bronce i 

Brea 

" and petroleum 10 

Petroleum 97 

Coal 178 

Salt 56 

Sulphur 14 

Not stated 4 



Total. 



FIRST QUARTER OF 189 


I. 




142 




.... 280 


" and silver. 


46 


" lead 

Silver 


I 

2,648 


" and copper 


10 


" lead 


24 


" " quicksilver. 


8 






Quicksilver 


21 


Bronce 




Brea 




" and petroleum ... 


10 




613 


Coal 


.... 278 


Salt 


60 


Sulphur 


14 






Total 


...- 4,187 



Increase for 1891, 1,271. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

The French metric system of weights and measures was legally 
established in i860, but except for custom purposes, has not been 
generally adopted. The weights and measures in use are: The 
onza, 1. 014 ounce, avoirdupois; the libra, 1.014 pound, avoirdupois; 
the arroba of 25 libras, 25.36 pounds, avoirdupois; the quintal, 
101.44 pounds, avoirdupois; the arroba (of wine or spirits), 8.044 
gallons, avoirdupois; the galon, .88 gallon, avoirdupois; the vara, 
33.367 inches; the square vara, .859 square yard. 



514 A HISTORY OF PERU 

PERUVIAN FINANCES. 
Revenue for the year ist of June, 1889, to 31ST of May, 1890. 

Customs, actual amount received S4, 995, 944.37 

Taxes on tobacco consumed $276,049.99 

" alcohol " 250,476.15 

opium " 233,430.29 

others various 154.193.98 — 914,150.41 

Telegraphs 30,651.65 

Postoflftce 156,531.89 

Various 310,022.74 

Railways 36,305.72 

Various, balance 31st of May, 1889, etc 5131921.65 



Total $6,957,349.43 

At ex. 37d. to the Sol. — £1,072,^91:7:4. 

Expenditures for the year ist of June, 1889, to 31ST of May, 1890. 

Legislative power, houses of senators and deputies. . . §253,458.65 

Executive power, ministry of government, police and 

public works 759i533-56 

" ministry of foreign affairs 220,807.54 

Ministry of justice, worship, instruction, etc 412,579.94 

finance and trade 1,076,632.80 

' ' war and marine 2,257,976.98 

To cover previous supplementary credits of previous year 

1889 753-516.57 

Various 339,061.72 



§6,073,967.27 
Balance in treasury 31st of May, 1890 883,382.17 



?6,957.349-43 



The monetary unit is the sol of 100 centesimos; nominally worth in 
the United States %i 00, but with a real value (1891) of 77.1 cents. 
Other coins are subdivisions of the sol and are the medio sol of 50- 
centesimos, the peseta of 20 centesimos, the real of 10 centesimos 
and the medio real of 5 centesimos. These coins are all of silver. 
It was estimated in 1887 that there were 60,000,000 paper soles in 
circulation, issued by banks at Lima, and declared to be of govern- 
ment responsibility. 

This money had gradually become greatly depreciated, being worth 
in 1887 about 5 cents on the sol. In 1888 it was withdrawn from 
circulation, except as payment for customs duties to the amount of 
5 per cent, at the rate of 35 paper soles for one of silver. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF PERU 
iseo 

[With the Reforms up to 1886] 



TITLE I 

THE NATION 



Art. I. The Peruvian nation is the political association of all 

Peruvians. 
Art. 2. The nation is free and independent, and cannot make a 
covenant opposed to its independence or integrity, or 
which, in any way, affects its sovereignty. 
Art. 3. The sovereignty resides in the nation, and its exercise is 
entrusted to the functionaries established by the Consti- 
tution. 

TITLE II 

religion 

Art. 4. The nation professes the Apostolic Roman Catholic 

religion; the State protects it, and does not permit the 

public exercise of any other. 

TITLE I I I 

NATIONAL GUARANTEES 

Art. - 5. No one may arrogate the title of sovereign. He who 
should do so, would commit the offence of ' ' leze- 
patrie " ('' lesa fatria"). 



5i6 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Art. 6. Hereditary employments, or privileges, or "Yiieros per- 
sonales" are not recognized in the republic. Entails 
are prohibited, and all property is transferable in the 
way determined by the laws. 

Art. 7. National property can only be alienated in the cases and 
in the way ordained by the law, and for the objects 
which the law sanctions. 

Art. 8. Taxes cannot be imposed except by virtue of a law, in 
proportion to the means of the contributor, and for the 
public service. 

Art. g. The law determines the revenue and the expenditure of 
the nation. Whatsoever quantity is in excess or is used 
for any other purpose than the law provides, must be 
accounted for by him who orders such excess, or expendi- 
ture: also he shall be responsible unless he proves his 
innocence. 

Art. 10. The acts of those who usurp public functions, and 
appointments made without compliance with the re- 
quirements of the Constitution and the laws, are null. 

Art. II. Every one who exercises any public charge is directly 
and immediately responsible for the acts he performs 
in the exercise of his functions. The law determines 
the way in which this responsibility is made effective. 
The " Fiscals " are responsible if they do not require 
the fulfilment of what is ordained in this article. 

Art. 12. No one can exercise the public functions ordained by 
this Constitution, if he does not swear to uphold it. 

Art. 13. Every Peruvian has the right to initiate proceedings 
before congress, before the executive power, or before 
any other competent authority, for any infraction of 
the Constitution. 

TITLE IV 

INDIVIDUAL GU.A.RANTEES 

Art. 14. No one is obliged to do anything that is not ordered by 
law, nor can be prevented from doing anything not pro- 
hibited by law. 
"Art. 15. No law has retrospective force or effect. 

Art. t6. The law protects life and honor against all unjust aggres- 
sion; and cannot impose the punishment of death ex- 
cept for wilful murder. 



CONS TITU TION OF PER U 517 

Art. 17. There are not, and cannot be, slaves in the republic. 

Art. 18. No one can be arrested without the written warrant of a 
competent judge, or of the authorities charged with the 
preservation of public order, except in fragrmite delicto : 
and in all cases the arrested person must be brought 
before the proper tribunal within twenty-four hours. 
The servers of the warrant are bound to give a copy of 
it, whenever it is asked for. 

Art. 19. Prisons are places of detention, not of punishment. All 
severity not necessary for secure keeping is prohibited. 

Art. 20. No one can be expelled from the republic, nor from the 
place of his residence, except by legal sentence. 

Art. 21. All have the right to use the press for the publication of 
their writings without previous censure, but subject to 
the responsibility imposed by the law. 

Art. 22. The secrecy of letters is inviolable. Letters that have 
been seized are not legal evidence. 

Art. 23. Every employment, trade, or profession, not opposed 
either to morals, to health, or to the public safety can 
be freely exercised. 

Art. 24. The nation guarantees the existence and diffusion of 
gratuitous primary instruction, and the encouragement 
of public establishments of science, art, piety, and 
charity. 

Art. 25. All who offer the guarantees of capacity and morality- 
prescribed by the law, can freely exercise the function 
of teaching, and direct educational establishments, 
under the inspection of the authorities. 

Art. 26. Property, whether it be material, intellectual, literary, or 
artistic, is inviolable: and no one can be deprived of his 
own, except for the public good legally proved, and 
with previous fair indemnification. 

Art. 27. Useful discoveries are the exclusive property of the 
inventors, unless they voluntarily agree to sell the 
secret, or there arises the case of forced expropriation.* 
Those who are merely the introducers of such discover- 
ies, shall enjoy the advantages of inventors for the 
limited time that is conceded in conformity with the 
law. 

* o que Uegue el caso de expropriacion forzosa. 



5i8 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Art. 28. Any stranger may acquire property in the republic, in 
accordance with the law, having, with reference to such 
property, the obligations and the rights of a Peruvian. 

Art. 29. All citizens have the right to associate peacefully, either 
in public or private, without compromising the public 
order. 

Art. 30. The rights of petition may be exercised individually or 
collectively. 

Art. 31. The domicile is inviolable. It cannot be entered without 
previously serving the written warrant of a judge or 
authority charged to preserve public order. The serv- 
ers of such warrant are bound to furnish a copy of it 
whenever called for. 

Art. 32. The laws protect and bind all equally. Special laws may 
be ordained, because they are required by the nature of 
the objects, but not merely for the difference of persons.* 
TITLE V 

PERUVIANS 

Art. 33. Peruvians become so by birth and by naturalization. 
Art. 34. Peruvians by birth are: 

1. Those born within the territory of the republic. 

2. Children of a Peruvian father or mother born 
abroad, and whose names have been inscribed 
in the civic register by desire of their parents 
in their minority, or by their own desire as soon 
as they have reached the legal age. 

3. Natives of Spanish America, or Spaniards who 
were in Peru when the independence was pro- 
claimed, and who subsequently continued to 
reside there. 
Art. 35 Peruvians by naturalization are, strangers over the age of 
twenty-one years; residents in Peru, who exercise some 
calling, industry, or profession, and who inscribe them- 
selves on the civic register in the form established by 
law. 
Art. 36. Every Peruvian is bound to serve the republic with his 
person and goods, in the way and the proportion estab- 
lished by law. 

* Podran establecerse leyes especiales porque lo requiera la naturaleza de los 
objetos, pero no por solvo la diferencia de personas. 



CONSTITUTION OF PERU 519 

TITLE VI 

CITIZENSHIP 

Akt. 37. All Peruvians over the age of twenty-one, and all married 
men, even if they have not attained that age, are active 
citizens. 

Art. 38. All citizens exercise the right of the suffrage who can 
read and write, or are the heads of workshops, or pos- 
sess real estate, or pay any contribution to the pubHc 
treasury. The exercise of this right shall be regulated 
by law 

Art. 39. Every citizen, who possesses the qualifications required 
by law, can receive any public employment. 

Art. 40. The exercise of citizenship is suspended by 

1. Incapacity as defined by law. 

2. Bankruptcy. 

3. Imprisonment for a criminal offence. 

4. Notorious gambling, vagrancy, or drunkenness, 
or divorce for his own fault. 

Art. 41. The right of citizenship is lost by 

1. Judicial sentence to that effect. 

2. Fraudulent bankruptcy judicially declared. 

3. By acquiring citizenship in another state. 

4. By accepting any employment from another 
government, or any title or decoration without 
permission of congress. 

5. By monastic profession: there being power to 
recover citizenship by abandoning the profession. 

6. For slave dealing in what place soever. 

TITLE VII 

THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT 

Art. 42. The government of Peru is republican, democratic, 
representative, founded on unity. 

Art. 43. The legislative, executive, and judicial authorities exer- 
cise public functions, provided that none go beyond the 
prescribed limits of the Constitution. 
TITLE VIII 

THE LEGISLATIVE POWER 

Art. 44. The legislative power is exercised by the congress, in the 
form which the Constitution prescribes. The congress 



520 A HISTORY OF PERU 

is composed of two chambers: that of the senators, and 
that of the deputies. 

Art. 45. The election of senators and deputies shall be in accord- 
ance with the law. 

Art. 46. An actual and a supplementary deputy shall be elected 
for every 30,000 inhabitants, and for every fraction 
exceeding 15,000, and for every province, although its 
inhabitants do not reach to that number. The number 
of deputies, who shall correspond to each province in 
accordance with this article, shall be fixed by law, and 
cannot be increased without previous disposition of 
congress. 

Art. 47. It is necessary for a deputy to be: 

1. A Peruvian by birth. 

2. An active citizen. 

4. To be twenty-five years of age. 

3. To be a native of the department to which the 
province he represents, belongs, or to have resided 
in it for three years. 

5. To have an annual income of $500, or to be a 
professor of some science. 

Art. 48. Each department which contains more than eight prov- 
inces, shall elect four actual senators, and four supple- 
mentary senators. Each department which contains less 
than eight, and more than four provinces, shall elect 
three actual and three supplementary senators. Each 
department which contains less than five provinces, and 
more than one, shall elect two actual and two supple- 
mentary senators. Each department containing only one 
province, and each littoral province shall elect one 
actual and one supplementary senator. 

Art. 49. It is necessary for a senator to be: 

1. A Peruvian by birth. 

2. An active citizen. 

3. To be thirty-five years of age. 

4. To have an annual income of $1,000, or to be a 
professor of some science. 

Art. 50. No senator or deputy can be elected who is: 

I. President, or one of the vice-presidents of the 
republic, a minister of state, a prefect, sub-prefect, 



CONSTITUTION OF PERU 521 

or governor, or has filled those offices two months 
before the elections. 
2. None of the judges, or the "Fiscal" of the 
supreme court of justice. 
Art. 51. Nor can the following be elected: 

1. Archbishops, bishops, ecclestiastical governors, 
capitular vicars, for the departments or provinces 
of their respective dioceses. 

2. Curas for the provinces to which their parishes 
belong. 

3. Judges, or " Fiscals " of the superior courts, for 
the departments or provinces in which they exer- 
cise jurisdiction. 

4. Judges of the first instance for their judicial 
districts. 

5. Military officers in the districts where they are in 
command of troops, or where they hold any other 
military appointment at the time of the elections. 

Art. 52. The ordinary congress shall meet every year on the 28th 
of July, either with or without a decree of convocation: 
and the extraordinary congress when it is summoned by 
the executive power. The duration of the ordinary con- 
gress shall be for ninety natural days, without counting 
prorogations; and the meeting of an extraordinary con- 
gress shall terminate when the object of its convocation 
is fulfilled, provided that it shall in no case sit for more 
than forty-five natural days.* 

Art. 53. For the installation of congress, it is necessary that two- 
thirds of each chamber should be present. 

Art. 54. The senators and deputies are inviolable in the exercise 
of their functions. 

Art. 55. The senators and deputies cannot be accused or imprisoned 
without the previous authorization of congress, from a 
month before the opening of the session, to a month 
after its close, except in fragrante delicto, in which case 
they shall be immediately placed at the disposition of 
their respective chambers. 

Art. 56. Acceptance of any employment, charge, or benefit from 

* This article was substituted for the original one by a law of January 3d, 1879. 



522 A HISTORY OF PERU 

the executive power has, in itself, the effect of vacating 

the seat of a senator or deputy.* 
Art. 57. The chambers shall be renewed every two years by third 

parts, at the termination of the ordinary legislature. 
Art. 58. Senators and deputies can be re-elected, and only in that 

event can the charge be renounced. 
Art. 59. The attributes of the congress are: 

1. To make laws, and to interpret, alter, or repeal 
existing laws. 

2. To open and close the sessions at the periods 
prescribed by law. 

3. To designate the place of meeting of their ses- 
sions, and to determine whether or no there shall 
be an armed force, in what number, and at what 
distance. 

4. To investigate infractions of the Constitution, 
and to decide what steps shall be taken to make 
the responsibility of the delinquents effective. 

5. To impose taxes, in accordance with the pro- 
vision in Article 8, to abolish existing taxes, to 
sanction the estimates, and to approve, or dis- 
approve, of the public expenditure presented by 
the executive power in conformity with Article 102. 

6. To authorize the executive power to negotiate 
loans, pledging the national revenue, and desig- 
nating the funds for repayment. 

7. To recognize the national debt and to decide 
upon the measures for its consolidation and pay- 
ment. 

8. To create or abolish public appointments, and to 
assign salaries. 

g. To determine the law respecting coin, its weight, 
type, and denomination; as well as respecting 
weights and measures. 
10. To proclaim the election of the president and 
vice-presidents of the republic, and to make the 
election void when the elected persons are not 
qualified according to law. 

* This article was substituted for the original one, by a law of January 3d, 1879. 



CONSTITUTION OF PERU 523 

11. To admit, or otherwise, the renunciation of his^ 
office by the chief of the executive power. 

12. To decide upon doubts that may arise respecting 
the incapacity of the president, as defined in 
Article 88. 

13. To approve, or disapprove, of the proposals 
which, with subjection to the law, the executive 
power may make respecting generals of the 
army and navy, and colonels and naval captains 
on the active list. 

14. To give, or withhold, consent to the entry of 
foreign troops in the territory of the republic. 

15. To resolve on the declaration of war at the 
request of, or on the previous report of the execu- 
tive power, and to require that peace be negoti- 
ated. 

16. To approve, or disapprove, of treaties of peace, 
concordats, or other conventions celebrated with 
foreign governments. 

17. To lay down the necessary rules for the c::ercise 
of the right of patronage. 

18. To rehabilitate those who have lost the right of 
citizenship. 

19. To grant amnesties and pardons. 

20. To declare when the country is in danger, and to 
suspend the guarantees established by Articles 18, 
20, 29, for a limited period. 

21. To decide, in each ordinary legislature, or in the 
extraordinary sessions when convened, the land 
and sea forces to be maintained by the state. 

22. To make the divisions and demarcations of the 
national territory. 

23. To grant remuneration to cities, corporations, or 
persons for eminent services to the state. 

24. To examine, at the end of each constitutional 
period, the administrative acts of the chief of the 
executive power, to approve them if they are in 
conformity with the Constitution and the laws; if 
not, the chamber of deputies shall submit to the 
senate the corresponding impeachment. 



524 A HISTORY OF PERU 

TITLE IX 

THE LEGISLATIVE CHAMBERS 

Art. 6o. In each chamber, projects of law shall be introduced, 
debated, and voted in conformity with the rules. 

Art. 6i. Each chamber has the right to organize a secretariat, to 
name its officials, to frame its estimate, and formulate 
its rules and arrangements. 

Art. 62. The chambers shall unite to exercise the functions 2, 3, 
10, II, 12, 14, 15, 16, 20 and 24 of Article 59; and to 
debate and vote on business respecting which they 
have differed when sitting separately; but in this case 
there must be a two-thirds vote to enable the law to 
pass. 

Art. 63. The presidency of the congress shall alternate between 
the presidents of the two chambers, in accordance with 
the rule made by congress. 

Art. 64. It is the office of the chamber of deputies to accuse 
before the senate the president of the republic, 
members of both chambers, ministers of State, and 
judges of the Supreme court, for infractions of the con- 
stitution, or for any fault committed in the exercise of 
their functions to which, according to the laws, a pun- 
ishment should be assigned. 

Art. 65. The president of the, republic cannot be accused during 
his term of office except in cases of treason, of having 
made an attempt against the form of government, or of 
having dissolved congress, impeded its meeting, or sus- 
pended its functions. 

Art. 66. It is the function of the senate: 

1. To declare whether or no there are grounds for 
the impeachment made by the chamber of depu- 
ties; the accused, in the first case, being sus- 
pended from the exercise of his office, and sub- 
jected to judgment according to law. 

2. To decide questions respecting jurisdictions that 
may arise between the superior courts and the 
supreme court, and between the latter and the 
executive power. 

TITLE X 

FORMATION AND PROMULGATION OF LAWS 



CONSTITUTION OF PERU 525 

Art. 67. The following bodies have an initiative in the formation 
of laws. 

1. The senators and deputies. 

2. The executive power. 

3. The supreme court, in judicial matters. 

Art. 68. When a project of law is approved in one chamber, it 
shall pass to the other to be debated and voted upon. 
If the revising chamber should make additions, they 
shall be subjected to the same forms as the original 
project. 

Art. 69. When a law has been approved by congress, it shall pass 
to the executive for promulgation and execution. If 
the executive should have any observations to make, 
they must be presented to the congress within ten days. 

Art. 70. When the law, with the observations of the executive, has 
been considered in both chambers, and if it is approved 
in its original form, it remains sanctioned, and shall be 
promulgated and complied with. If it is not so ap- 
approved, it cannot be reconsidered until the meeting 
of the next legislature. 

Art. 71. If the executive does not order the law so passed to be 
promulgated and complied with, nor make its observa- 
tions within ten days, according to the terms of Article 
6g, the promulgation shall be made by the president of 
congress, and he shall order it to be inserted, for its 
execution, in some newspaper. 

Art. 72. The executive has no power to make observations on the 
resolutions or laws passed by congress in the exercise 
of its functions, 2, 3, and 10. 

Art. 73. The sessions of congress, and those of its chambers, shall 
be public. They can only be secret in those cases 
fixed by the rule, and in conformity with the provisions 
required by it. 

Art. 74. The voting on all matters directly affecting the national 
revenues shall be by name. 

Art. 75. In interpreting, altering, or repealing laws the same forms 
shall be observed as in making them. 

Art. 76. The congress, in drawing up the laws, shall make use of 
this form: ''The Congress of the Peruvian Republic" 
(here follows the reasons) ' ' has passed the following 



526 A HISTORY OF PERU 

law" (here follows the law itself). "Let it' be com- 
municated to the executive power, which shall arrange 
what is necessary for its fulfilment." 
Art. 77. The executive, in ordering a law to be promulgated, shall 
use this form: "The President of the Republic, by 
reason of the following law having been passed by the 
Congress" (here follows the law), "orders it to be 
printed, published, and circulated, and that it be duly 
complied with." 

TITLE XI 

THE EXECUTIVE POWER 

Art. 78. The chief of the executive power shall have the denomi- 
nation of President of the Republic. 
Art. 79. To be president of the republic it is necessary to be: 

1. A Peruvian by birth. 

2. An active citizen. 

3. To be thirty-five years of age, and ten years 
domiciled in the republic. 

Art. 80. The president of the republic shall be elected by the 
people in the form prescribed by the law. 

Art. 81. The congress shall effect the opening of the electoral 
returns, attest them, regulate the votes, and proclaim 
the candidate who obtains an actual majority presi- 
dent. 

Art. 82. If such a majority does not result from the scrutiny, the 
congress shall choose between the two who shall have 
obtained the greatest number of votes. If two. or 
more, shall obtain an equal number of votes, the con- 
gress shall choose one from among them. 

Art. 83. If the votes given by congress, in accordance with the 
previous article, are equal, the matter shall be decided 
by lot. 

Art. 84. "When the congress elects a president, the business must 
be finished at one sitting. 

Art. 85. The president shall remain in office for four years, and 
he cannot be re-elected, nor elected as vice-president, 
until an equal period has elapsed. 

Art. 86. The president, at the termination of his period of office, 
shall submit an account of his administrative acts to 
congress, with reference to clause 24 of Article 59. 



CONSTITUTION OF PERU 527 

Aet. 87. The salary of the president canrot be increased during 

his period of office. 
Art. 88. The presidency of the republic, besides by the demise of 

the president, is vacated: 

1. By his permanent physical or mental incapacity. 

2. By the reception of his resignation. 

3. By judicial sentence, convicting cf offences 
named in Article 65. 

4. By the termination of his term of office. 

Art. 89. There shall be two vice-presidents of the republic, first 
and second, who shall be elected at the same time, with 
the same qualifications, and for the same term as the 
president. 

Art. go. In the event of a vacancy for any of the reasons enumer- 
ated in Article 88, except the last, the first vice-presi- 
dent shall complete the period commenced. In the 
cases given in Article 93, the first vice-president shall 
only hold the office of president so long as the impedi- 
ment suspending the president exists. 

Aet. 91. In default of the president and the first vice-president, 
the second vice-president shall assume supreme charge, 
until the candidate chosen according to law can replace 
him. In the event of a vacancy, the necessary orders 
for an election of president and first vice-president of 
the republic shall be issued within three days, and the 
congress shall be convoked with a view to compliance 
with Article 81 and those which follow it. 

Art. 92. The vice-presidents of the republic cannot be candidates 
for the presidency, or for the vice-presidency, during 
the time that they exercise supreme power: nor can 
the ministers of state, nor the general-in-chief of the 
army. 

Art. 93. The exercise of the presidential functions is suspended: 

1. When the president commands the army in 
person. 

2. Owing to temporary infirmity. 

3. When he is under judgment, in accordance with 
the provisions of Article 65. 

Art. 94. The duties of the president of the republic are; 

I. To preserve the internal order, and secure the 



528 A HISTORY OF PERU 

external safety of the republic, without contra- 
vening the law. 

2. To convoke the ordinary congress, without prej- 
udice to the first part of Article 52, and the extra- 
ordinary congress when necessary. 

3. To be present at the opening of congress, pre- 
senting a message respecting the state of the 
republic and the reforms and improvements 
which he judges to be opportune. 

4. To take part in the formation of the laws, in 
conformity with the constitution. 

5. To promulgate and see to the enforcement of the 
laws and resolutions of congress, and to issue 
decrees, orders, rules and instructions for the 
better fulfilment of such laws. 

6. To give the necessary orders for the collecting 
and disbursement of the public revenues, in 
accordance with the law. 

7. To require the prompt and exact administration 
of the law from the judges and tribunals. 

8. To see that the sentences of the court are carried 
out. 

9. To organize the forces by land and sea, and to 
dispose them" for the service of the republic. 

10. To distribute the national guard in their respective 
provinces, without power to withdraw them, 
except in cases of sedition or foreign war. 

11. To direct diplomatic negotiations, and celebrate 
treaties with the express proviso that they must 
be submitted to the congress in compliance with 
clause 16 of Article 59. 

12. To receive foreign ministers, and admit consuls. 

13. To nominate and remove ministers of state and 
diplomatic agents. 

14. To decree licences and pensions in conformity 
with the law. 

15. To exercise the patronage entrusted to him by 
the laws. 

16. To present as archbishops and bishops those 
who have been chosen according to law, with the 
approval of congress. 



CONSTITUTION OF PERU 529 

17. To present to the dignities and canonries of the 
cathedrals, and to curacies and other ecclesiastical 
benefices, in accordance with the law. 

18. To celebrate concordats with the apostolic see, 
conforming to the instructions given by congress. 

ig. To concede or deny a pass to counciliar decrees, 
bulls, briefs and rescripts with assent of the 
congress; and first hearing the views of the 
supreme court of justice, if they should relate to 
matters under dispute. 
20. To fill vacant offices, the nomination to which 
belongs to him according to the constitution, or 
to special laws. 
Art. 96. The president may not lease the territory of the republic 
during his term of office without permission of con- 
gress, nor after that period, so long as he is subject to 
receive judgment in accordance with the provisions of 
Article 66. 
Art. 95. The president cannot personally take command of an 
armed force without permission of congress. In the 
event of his taking the command, he shall only exercise 
the faculties of a general-in-chief, subject to military 
laws and ordinances, and responsible with reference to 
them. 

TITLE XII 

THE MINISTERS OF STATE 

Art. 97. The despatch of public administrative business is in 
charge of ministers of state, whose number as well as 
the departments placed under each minister, shall be 
arranged by law. 

Art. 98. A minister of state must be a Peruvian by birth, and an 
active citizen. 

Art. 99. The orders and decrees of the president shall be signed by 
each minister in his respective department, and without 
this requisite they shall not be obeyed. 

Art. 100. The ministers of state, meeting together, form a council 
of ministers, the organization and functions of which 
shall be defined by law. 

Art. ioi. Each minister shall present to the ordinary congress, at 
the time of its installation, a report in which he shall 



530 A HISTORY OF PERU 

explain the state of each department of which he is in 
charge, and he shall supply information any time that 
it may be required by congress. 
Art. I02. The minister of finance shall also present to congress the 
general statement of the previous two years, and the 
estimate for the two coming years. 
Art. 103. The ministers can present to congress, at all times, such 
projects for laws as they judge to be desirable, and 
may be present at the debates of congress in either 
chamber, but they should retire before the votes are 
taken. They can also take part in the discussions, 
whenever they are called upon by congress, or either 
of the chambers, and they shall reply to the inter- 
pellations that may be made. 
Art. 104. The ministers are responsible, as a bpdy, for any resolu- 
tion passed in council, unless their vote is against it; 
and individually for all special acts in their departments. 
TITLE XIII 
permanent commission of the legislative body * 
TITLE XIV 
interior regulation of the republic 
Art. III. The republic is divided into departments and littoral 
provinces. The departments are divided into prov- 
inces, and these into districts. 
Art. 112. The division of the departments, of the provinces, and of 
the districts and the demarcation of their respective 
limits shall be the subject of a law. 
Art. 113. There shall be prefects of the departments, and littoral 
provinces, sub-prefects of the provinces, governors of 
the districts, and lieutenant governors where it may be 
necessary, for the execution of the laws, and of judicial 
sentences, and for the preservation of public order. 
Art. 1x4. The prefects shall be under the immediate orders of the 
executive power, the sub-prefects under the prefects, 
and the governors under the sub-prefects. 
Art. 115. The prefects and sub- prefects shall be nominated b}^ the 
executive power, and the governors by prefects, being 

* This title, containing articles 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, no, was abolished by the 
law of August 31st, 1874. 



C0NS2VTUTI0N OF PERU 531 

proposed by the sub-prefects, and the lieutenant-govern- 
ors by the sub-prefects, being proposed by the governors. 
The executive power may remove the prefects and the 
sub-prefects in accordance with the law 

Art. 116. The duties of these functionaries, and the duration of 
their terms of office shall be determined by a law. 

Art. 117. The functionaries in charge of the police for the security 
of public order, shall be immediately under the execu- 
tive power, which shall nominate and remove them 
according to law. 

TITLE XV 

MUNICIPALITIES 

Art. 118. There shall be municipalities in the places ordained by 
law; and the law shall designate their duties, responsi- 
bility, the qualifications of their members, and the 
mode of electing them. 

TITLE XVI 

THE PUBLIC FORCES 

Art. iig. The object of the public forces shall be to maintain the 
rights of the nation abroad, the execution of the laws, 
and order at home. Military obedience shall be regu- 
lated by the military laws and ordinances. 

Art. 120. The public forces are composed of the national guards, 
the army, and the navy, and shall be organized in 
accordance with the law; as well as the number of 
generals and other officers. 

Art. 121. The national guards shall be organized and their numbers 
fixed in accordance with law. 

Art. 122. There shall not be territorial generals in command, nor 
military commandants in time of peace. 

Art. 123. The public forces cannot be increased nor renewed, 
except in conformity with the law. Recruiting, contrary 
to what has been sanctioned, is a crime before the 
judges and before congress. 
TITLE XVII 

THE JUDICIAL POWER 

Art. 124. Justice shall be administered by the tribunals and judges 

in the mode and form that the law directs. 
Art. X25. In the capital of the republic there shall be a supreme 

34 



532 A HISTORY OF PERU 

court of justice. In the departments there shall be 
superior courts, in the provinces judges of first instance, 
and in all the villages justices of the peace. 

Art. 126. The judges and " fiscals " of the supreme court shall be 
nominated by the congress, from names submitted by 
the ezecutive power. The judges and "fiscals" of the 
superior courts shall be nominated by the executive, 
from names submitted by the supreme court. The 
judges of first instance and fiscal agents shall be nomi- 
nated by the respective superior courts. If a vacancy 
occurs in the supreme court during the recess of con- 
gress, the executive power shall temporarily nominate a 
successor. 

Art. 127. Publicity is essential in the judgments. The tribunals 
may discuss in secret, but their votes must be given in 
a loud voice and in public. The sentences shall be 
pronounced with the reasons, and a statement of the 
law on which they are founded. 
All judgments by commission are prohibited. 
No power nor authority can remove a pending suit to 
another power or authority, nor revive completed pro- 
cesses. 
Popular action against magistrates and judges may be 
caused by 

1. Prevarication. 

2. Bribery. 

3. Abbreviation or suspension of judicial forms. 

4. Illegal proceedings against individual guarantees. 

TITLE XVIII 

REFORM OF THE CONSTITUTION 

Art. 131. Reform of one or more constitutional articles may be 
sanctioned in ordinary congress, subject to the same 
forms as any project of law must pass through; but it 
cannot take effect unless it is ratified, in the same way, 
by the succeeding ordinary legislature 

Given in the Hall of Sessions at Lima, on the loth of November, 

"^ °' Manuel de Mendiburu, Vice-president of Congress. 

Miguel del Carpio, Second Vice-president. 

Signed by one hundred and fifteen deputies. 



Art. 


128. 


Art. 


129. 


Art. 


130. 



CONSTITUTION OF PERU 533 

I order it to be printed, promulgated, and that it be put in execu- 
tion. Given at the Government House in Lima, on the 13th of 
November, i860. 

Ramon Castilla, President of the Republic. 

Jose Fabio Melgar, Minister of Foreign Affairs. 

Manuel Morales, Minister of Public Works. 

Juan Antonio Pezet, Minister of War and Marine. 

Juan Jose Salcedo, Minister of Finance. 



THE 
AUTHORITIES FOR PERUVIAN HISTORY 

The readers of the history of Peru will seek for some information 
respecting the authorities on which the different parts of the narrative 
are based, and some of them may wish to refer to the original 
sources of the story. 

Inca civilization has been described by several Spaniards, and the 
most valuable accounts are those which were written nearest to the 
period of the conquest. 

Pedro de Cieza de Leon finished the first part of his chronicle, 
which is mainly a geographical description of the country, in 1554. 
His account of Inca civilization is in the second part. Both have 
been translated into English by Clements R. Markham, in the series 
of volumes printed by the Hakluyt Society. 

Juan Jose de Betanzos married an Inca princess, and knew the 
Quichua language. His account of the Incas,' written in 1551, 
remained in manuscript until it was edited and printed by Senor 
Jimefies de la Espada in 1880, It has not been translated into 
English. 

Polo de Ondegardo, a learned lawyer, who took an active part in 
politics from the time of the President Gasca, to that of the Viceroy 
Toledo, made valuable reports on the laws of the Incas and their 
system of administration. His two "Relaciones" were written in 
1 561 and 1 57 1, but they are still in manuscript. One of his reports 
has, however, been translated by Clements R. Markham, and is 
printed in a volume of the Hakluyt Society. 

Angustin de Zarate came out to Peru as accountant, with the first 
viceroy, Blasco Nunez Vela. His " Provincia del Peru" was pub- 
lished at Antwerp in 1555. 



AUTHORITIES 535 

Fernando de Santillan came out as a judge of the Lima Audience in 
1550. His interesting " Relacion " remained in manuscript until it 
was edited and printed by Seiior Jimenes de la Espada in 1879. 

Juan de Matienzo, another lawyer, contemporary with Ondegardo, 
wrote a valuable work entitled " Gobierno de el Peru,'' which is still 
in manuscript. 

Christoval de Molina, a priest established at Cuzco, wrote the best 
account of Inca ceremonial and religion, between 1570 and 1584. It 
has been translated into English by Clements R. Markham, in a 
volume of the Hakluyt Society. 

Miguel Cavello Balboa wrote his work at Quito, between 1576 and 
1586, (entitled " Miscellanea Austral.") It contains the only particu- 
lars we have of the history of the coast Indians, and the best 
account of the war between Huascar and Atahualpa. It has been 
published in French by Ternaux Compans (1840). 

Jose de Acosta, a Jesuit, wrote what he called a " Natural History 
of the Indies," first published in 1588. It has been translated into 
English by Clements R. Markham (2 vols.), and published by the 
Hakluyt Society. 

Fernando Montesinos arrived in Peru in 1629. His works are 
' ' Memorias Antiguas Historiales del Peru, " and ' ' Anales o Memorias 
Nuevas del Peru." Montesinos gives a long list of sovereigns who 
preceded the Incas. His work remained in manuscript until it was 
edited and printed by Seiior Jimenes de la Espada, in 1882. It was 
published in a French translation, in 1840, by Ternaux Compans. 

An anonymous Jesuit wrote " Relacion de los Costumbres Antiguas 
de los Naturales del Peru," a most valuable work on Inca civilization, 
which remained in manuscript until it was printed by Senor Jimenes 
de la Espada in 1879. 

Francisco de Avila, a Jesuit, wrote a work on the false gods and 
superstitions of the Indians of Huarochiri, which was translated by 
Clements R. Markham, and published by the Hakluyt Society. 

Pablo Jose de Arriaga, another Jesuit, wrote a curious book 
entitled *' Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Peru," in 1621. 

Antonio de la Calancha, in his history of the order of St. Augustine 
in Peru (1638-1653), gives a good deal of information respecting the 
Incas. 

Alonzo Ramos Gavilan, in the " Historia de Copacabana y de su 
Milagrosa Imagen " (1620), throws light on the movements of the" 
" mitimaes " or colonists in the time of the Incas. 

Inca Garcilasso de la Vega, in his "Commentaries Reales, " gives 



536 A HISTORY OF PERU 

a history of the Incas, and reviews the work of previous authors. 
The value of his work is increased by the extracts he gives from a 
much earher work by the Jesuit, Bias Valera, which is lost. The 
" Commentarios Reales " have been translated by Clements R. 
Markham, and printed by the Hakluyt Society. 

Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua, an Indian of the Collao, wrote a 
work entitled " Relacion de Antiguedades deste Reyno del Peru," 
which remained in manuscript until it was printed in 1879 by Senor 
Jimenes de la Espada. It was translated into English by Clements 
R. Markham, and published by the Hakluyt Society. 

Juan de Velasco wrote the " Historia del Reino de Quito," which 
was printed in French by Ternaux Compans in 1840. 

Antonio de Herrera, in his "General History of the Indies," gives 
a brief account of the history and civilization of the Incas. 

Robertson, in his " History of America," was the first to give a 
good general account of the Incas. But since 1848 his work has been 
superseded by the charming narrative of Prescott. Arthur Helps, in 
his ''Spanish Conquest" (1B55), has also given a brief account of 
Inca civilization. In i860 the Peruvian, Sebastian Lorente, published 
his ancient history of Peru, in which the subject is treated more 
fully than by the American or English authors; and Lorente gave the 
results of many years of further study in a series of essays published 
in the " Revista Peruana." 

The ruins and other antiquities of the Inca period, have received 
much attention in recent times. The best works are ' 'Antiguedades 
Peruanas, " by Don Mariano Rivero, translated into English by Dr. 
Hawkes, of New York, in 1853; " Myths of the New World " and the 
"American Race," by Dr. Brinton, of Philadelphia; the work on 
Peru by E. G. Squier (1877) which contains the best and most accur- 
ate account of the Inca ruins; and the similar work by C. Weiner 
(Paris, 1880). The superb work of Reiss and Stiibel on their excava- 
tions at Ancon is in three folio volumes with one hundred and nine- 
teen plates. 

CONQUEST OF PERU 

The first Spaniard who obtained a reliable account of the Inca 
Empire, and contemplated its conquest was Pascual de Andagoyas. 
His narrative long remained in manuscript, but was printed by 
Navarrete. It has been translated into English by Clements R. 
Markham, and published by the Hakluyt Society. 

Francisco de Xeres, the secretary to Pizarro, wrote a history of the 



AUTHORITIES 537 

earlier period of the conquest by order of his master, printed at 
Seville in 1535. The third edition appeared at Madrid in 1749, and 
Ternaux Compans brought out a French edition in 1837. It was tr 
anslated into English by Clements R. Markham, and published by 
the Hakluyt Society in 1872. 

Hernando Pizarro also wrote a short letter dated November, 1533, 
going over the same ground as Xeres, which was given by Oviedo, in 
his "Historia General," and by Quintana. It was translated into 
English by Clements R. Markham, and published by the Hakluyt 
Society. 

Pedro Pizarro, a cousin of the conqueror, was an eye-witness of all 
the events of the conquest. He finished his " Relaciones del Descu- 
brimiento y Conquista del Peru" in 1571, but it remained in manu- 
script for centuries. At length it was printed at Madrid among 
" Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de Espana." 

Alonzo Enriquez de Guzman wrote an account of the civil war 
between Pizarro and Almagro, of which he was an eye-witness. It 
remained in manuscript, and is now in the national library at Madrid. 
It was translated by Clements R. Markham, and published by the 
Hakluyt Society. 

Manuel Josef Quintana, in his "Vidas de Espanoles Celebres, " wrote 
the best life of Pizarro, and has printed some original documents 
relating to him. 

General histories of the conquest and of the civil wars which 
followed, are given in Herrera, Gomara, Zarate, and the second 
volume of Garcilasso de la Vega, and Oviedo, in two chapters, gives 
the early history of the conquest. 

Several letters of Vaca de Castro and Gasca have been published 
in a large volume published by the Spanish government, called 
"Cartas de Indias " (1877). 

CIVIL WARS 

Pedro de Cieza de Leon wrote a history of the war between the 
Viceroy Blasco Nuiiez Vela and Gonzalo Pizarro, entitled "La 
Guerra de Quito." It was first printed by Jimenes de la Espada 
in 1877. 

Diego Fernandez (el Palentino) served in the army which was 
raised to put down the rebel Giron, and was appointed chronicler of 
Peru by the Marquis of Canete. His work, containing the rebellions 
of Gonzalo Pizarro and of Giron, entitled "Historia del Peru," was 
published at Seville in 1571. 



538 A HISTORY OF PERU 

Robertson, Prescott, Helps, and Lorente have written histories of 
the conquest of Peru and of the civil wars down to the death of 
Gonzalo Pizarro. 

The largest amount of information respecting all the actors on the 
stage of Peruvian history, from the earliest times to the end of the 
Spanish colonial period, will be found in the biographical dictionary 
of General Mendiburu. 

VICEROYS 

Francisco de Toledo. The "Libre de Tasas y Ordenanzas " of this 
viceroy gives a complete idea of the Spanish system, as regards the 
treatment of the Indians. 

" Baltasar d'Ocampo " is a narrative of the capture and execution 
of Tupac Amaru. It is a manuscript in the British museum. 

Juan de Solorzano, in his " Politica Indiana" (1648), furnishes a 
history of the law relating to the Spanish colonies. As regards the 
powers and duties as well as the constitution of the council of the 
Indies, a perusal of the ' ' Ordenanzas del Consejo Real de las 
Indias," published in 1747, will give full information. 

Cristoval Suarez de Figueroa wrote a life of the Marquis of Caiiete, 
including his administration of Peru, which was published in 1613, 
" Hechos de Don Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza cuarto Marques de 
Caiiete." It was reprinted at Santiago in 1864. 

Manuel Fuentes edited ten of the memoirs of the viceroys of 
Peru, intended to be complete histories of their respective adminis- 
trations, prepared for the use of their successors. They were 
printed at Lima, in six volumes (1859-1867). 

Several other memoirs of viceroys are among the manuscripts in 
the British museum. The report on the sufferings of the Indians, 
written by Juan de Padilla in 1657, was a manuscript in the national 
library at Lima. 

" Noticias Secretas " of the brothers Ulloa, which dwell upon the 
treatment of the Indians in Peru, was printed by David Barry in 
1826. An abridged English version appeared at Boston in 1851. 

TUPAC AMARU 

A history of the great revolt of the Indians was written by Dean 
Funes, of Cordova, in 18 13. A large collection of original docu- 
ments relating to the rebellion of Tupac Amaru was printed at 
Buenos Ayres in 1836, by Pedro de Angelis. The letter from Tupac 
Amaru to Areche, and the sentence of death pronounced by the 
latter first appeared in the Spanish edition of the ' ' Memoirs of 



AUTHORITIES 539 

General Miller." There are a number of inedited letters and 
despatches among the additional manuscripts in the British museum, 
and in the possession of Clements R. Markham. 

EVE OF THE REVOLUTION 

The history of the rebellion of Pumacagua is contained in a series 
of official documents which were preserved in the national library at 
Lima. 

The early movements toward independence in Peru have been 
admirably described by the accomplished Chilean historian, Don 
Benjamin Vicuna Mackenna, in his " Historia de la Independencia 
del Peru " (i860). The war in Upper Peru will be found in General 
Mitre's " Life of General Belgrano." 

WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 

The whole history of the war is given in the "Memoirs of General 
Miller" (1829); and the proceedings of the fleet are described in the 
narrative of the Earl of Dundonald (1859). The story of the war, 
from a Spanish point of view, appeared from the pen of General 
Garcia Camba, " Memorias para la Historia de las Armas Espanoles" 
(1846). Holstein's " Memoirs of Bolivar" give the previous history 
of the " Liberator." 

THE REPUBLIC 

The secret political history of the republic, with numerous docu- 
ments, is given in a work in two volumes, published at Paris, under 
the name of " Pruvonena." It was written by Don Fernando Casos, 
but it must be used with suspicious care. General Riva Aguero 
wrote a defence of his government. There is a life of Lamar by 
Villaran, and of Salaverry by Bilbao (second edition, Buenos Ayres). 
The history of the campaign, which ended in the fall of Santa Cruz, 
was written by the Peruvian Colonel Placencia (1840), and by the 
Chilean, Gonzalo Bulnes. The history of the war with Spain in 1866 
was written in great detail by Don Benjamin Vicuna Mackenna 
(1883), and the same lamented author has written the best history of 
the recent Chilean invasion, in four large volumes, with numerous 
despatches and other documents. Seiior Paz Soldan wrote the history 
of the war from the Peruvian point of view. 



MANUFACTURES OF PERU 

Extracts fj'ovi a paper read before the Society of Arts {London) by 

Don Frederico A. Pezet, Peruvian Consul-Gejieral, on March i^th, 

1892. 

The textile industries of Peru are yet in their infancy. At present 
there is a manufactory of woollen goods in Lucre, in the Department 
of Cuzco. This manufactory dates since 1864, and has given a very 
large fortune to the owners, Messrs Garmendia & Company, natives 
of Cuzco. Their idea was to manufacture the coarse woollen 
materials used by the native Indians of Peru and Bolivia, and also to 
supply the materials for the uniforms of the armies of both countries. 
This they have fully obtained, and there is an ever-increasing demand 
for their goods, both in the South of Peru as well as in the Bolivian 
markets. 

As the estate of Lucre is situated in one of the best and most 
thickly populated districts of Cuzco, and where the best qualities of 
wool-bearing animals abound, the goods manufactured there are far 
superior to any similar European goods, owing to the fact that at 
Lucre only the pick of the wools are used, and such as not exported 
to Europe. During the year 1890, Messrs. Prado, H^os_ ^-^^ Pena, 
established a wool manufactory at Lima, which, since then, has given 
every satisfaction, both to that firm and the general public. The 
machinery was built at the Societe Anonyme Vervetoise, and is quite 
modern — " self-acting " spinning-machines, and other smaller mach- 
ines, are of English make. 

The Vitarte Cotton Mill, situated seven miles distant from Lima, in 

a cotton-growing district, was formerly the property of a Peruvian 

gentleman, who sold it last year to an English company — "The 

Peruvian Cotton Manufacturing Company, Limited." The original 

fitting consisted of sixty-five looms, producing 1,000,000 yards of 

cotton cloth per annum; and, since the English company took over 

the property, and invested large sums in fitting up one hundred and 

540 



MANUFACTURES 541 

three new looms, and erecting the latest and most improved modern 
machinery, the output has risen to 2,500,000 yards per annum of 
cotton cloth, besides great quantities of cotton wicking, waste, duck, 
towels, tablecloths, &c., &c. This mill is to-day as well equipped, 
and is as complete a concern as the best mill of a similar kind in this 
country. The demand for the Vitarte goods has always been in 
excess of the supply. The entire production is disposed of in Lima 
to local buyers as fast as it is turned out. Owing, as I have already 
pointed out, to the superior quality of the Peruvian staple, the goods 
manufactured at Vitarte are better and more adaptable to the native 
requirements; and thus it is that they always maintain their briskness, 
and that their demand is ever on the increase, notwithstanding the 
fluctuations of the market with respect to the imported article, which 
has to pay a comparatively heavy import duty of between eight and 
twenty-four centavos per kilogramme. 

The valleys of Ferrenafe, Chicama, Guadalupe, Santa, Supe, 
Caiiete, and the Lima district are, perhaps, amongst the most famous 
for the cultivation and production of the cane. In these valleys the 
estates are simply superb, and the greater part of them are fitted up 
with machinery of the latest and most modern type. The sugar 
industry in Peru has suffered to a very large extent, owing to the keen 
competition of beet sugar in the European markets, and the increased 
production of cane in other countries, which has caused a considerable 
fall in prices. Then, again, the Peruvian producers have had to con- 
tend with scarcity of labor, limited water supplies, a long and pro- 
tracted foreign war, which brought about a most serious financial 
crisis, the effects of which are felt even to-day. 

Notwithstanding these drawbacks, the sugar industry is still one of 
the most important in the country, and one which promises to increase 
if proper attention is paid to it. As a proof of this, I may mention 
that the production, during 1891, has reached 67,000 tons, an increase 
of about 10,000 tons over the preceding year. Some of the estates 
are provided with every modern appliance, such as narrow-gauge 
railways for the carriage of the cane from the fields to the sugar- 
houses. During the last year an English company has bought over 
one of the estates in the Chicama Valley, and put up powerful 
machinery of the most modern description, of the well-known firm of 
Fawcett, Preston & Co. The sugar-houses and the different depart- 
ments have been fitted up with electric light, so that work is now 
going on at full pressure day and night. Due to the impulse which 
the capital invested has given to this estate, there is every reason to 



542 A HISTORY OF PERU 

believe that this year's output of sugar alone will exceed 6,boo tons. 
The success which this venture has obtained, I understand, has been 
the cause of some inquiry after the Peruvian sugar estates, and I 
would not be at all surprised to learn that several others are being 
bought over by English companies. 

Another instance where the purchase of a going concern in Peru 
has proved profitable to investors, is the case of Messrs. Backus & 
Johnston's brewery in Lima. These gentlemen established, in 1880, 
a very large brewery in Lima, in order to meet the ever increasing 
demand for a light lager-beer. In i8go their concern, which was, at 
the time, a most prosperous business, was bought over by an English 
company, and as a result of the capital invested in the business, I 
may mention that to-day the production has been quadrupled, and 
that the supply quite equals the demand. 



INDEX 



A Page 

Abascal, Don Jose Fernando.. . .220, 236 

Academia Libre de Medicina 448 

AcUa-huasi 24 

Acosta, Jose de 149, 170, 533 

Acosta, Juan de 129 

Acuna, Father Christoval de 178 

Aguero, Jose de la Riva. . .222, 225, 243, 

258, 260, 264, 296, 301, 328, 374, 376 

Aguilar, Jose Gabriel 223 

Aguirre, Don Elias 392 

Alba de Liste, Count of 179 

Alcaldes 156,455,458 

Alcantara, Francisco Martin de. 76, 107 

Alcohol 509 

Alcon, Pedro 72, 74 

Aldana, Lorenzo de 104, 117, 125, 129 

Alesio, Adrian de 171 

Alfarillo 452 

Aliaga, Don Antonio 197 

Aliaga, Don Juan de 412 

Allcovisas 20, 21, 22 

Almagro, Diego. 68, 70, 75, 82, 87, 91, 95, 

97, loi, 103, 104. 
Almagro, "The Lad." 104, 106, in, 114, 

116, 117. 

Almaraz, Dona Mencia 139 

Alpaca 17, 37, 456, 497 

Althaus, Clemente 468, 469 

Alvarado.Alonzo de,88,95,98,ii2,ii7,i28, 

137- 
Alvarado, Diego 89, 99 



Page 

Alvarado, Gaicia de m 

Alvarado, Gen'l 258 

Alvarado, Gomez de 117. 

Alvarez, Judge 120 

Alvarez, Mariano . 222 

Amantas 28 

"Amantes del Pais " 21/ 

Amat, Don Manuel .- 187" 

Amazon 178, 504 

Amazonas 463 

Ampuero, Francisco de 107 

Amunategui, Don Manuel 481 

Anaquito, Battle of 126 

Anaya, Don Atelano de 151 

Ancachs 19, 462 

Ancon 371 

Ancon, Valley 45 

Andagoya, Pascual de 67, 128, 534. 

Andahuaylas, Valley 455 

Andes 12, 15, 16, 17 

Angelis, Pedro de 536 

Angulo, Vicente 228 

Aunon, Dr. Morcillo Rubio de 184 

Antequera, Don Jose 185 

Antiquities 454, 534 

Antis, The 40 

Anti-suyu 42 

Apu-ollanta 29 

Apurimac 464 

Apurimac River 12, 25 

Arbieto, Don Martin Hurtado de...i52 



543 



544 



INDEX 



Page 

Architecture of the Chimus 47, 50 

Architecture of the Incas 32 

Areche, Jose Antonio 190, 205 

Arenales, Gen'l 245, 247 

Arenas, Antonio 410, 428 

Arequipa 105, 463 

Arese, Don Pedro 490 

Arestegui, Narciso 468, 470 

Argentine 385, 433 

Arica .jpo, 405 

Arms of the Incas 40 

Army 380, 412, 431, 529 

Arriaga, Pablo Jose de ^70,533 

Arthur, President 419 

Arts 457 

Asses - 162 

AstronomicaL,knowledge of Incas.. .24 

Astu-huaraca 44 

Atahualpa 53, 59, 78, 80, 82 

"Ateneo de Lima, El " 482 

Atienza, Bias de 83 

Atoc 56 

Audience of Cuzco 216 

Augustines 169 

" Aurora de Chile" 223 

Authorities for Peruvian History.. .532 

Avalos, Gil Ramirez de 136 

Avila, Alonzo de 83 

Avila, Francisco de 533 

Aviles, Don Gabriel de 201, 212, 220 

Ayacucho 264 

Ayacucho, Battle of 277 

Ayala, Pedro de 83 

Ayllus 20, 23 

Aymara Language 444 

B 

Bachicao, Hernando 125 

Bacque. Hector 343 

Balboa, Miguel Cavello 52, 533 

Balboa, Vasco, Nunez de 68 

Baleato, Andres 217 

Ballivian, Gen'l 333, 335 

Balsas , "]"] 

Balta, Jose 365, 366 

Bandini, Dr 447, 460 

Baquedano, Gen'l 403, 414 

Barcena, Alonso de 153 

Barco, Pedro del 8r 



Page 

Barley 163,500 

Barranca, Don Jose Sebastian 480 

Barranca, Valley 45 

Basadre, Don Modesto 479 

Basequs 503 

Beer 54° 

Belen College 448 

Benalcazar, Sebastian de.. .88, 104, 125 

Benavente, Dr. Jorge de 301 

Bermudez, Pedro 297 

Bermudez, Don Remijo Morales, 427, 

431, 439- 

Bertonio, Author 170 

Betanzos, Juan de 146, 532 

Bilbao, Manuel 320 

Bias Tupac Amaru 194 

Boating Clubs 449 

Bobadilla loi 

Bolivia 190, 2S2, 323, 375, 3S5 

Bolivar, Simon, 254, 265, 266, 271,281.284 

Bolognesi, Col 396, 406 

Bonaparte, Joseph 227 

Borgono, Don Justiniano 439 

Borja Aragon, Don Francisco de 173 

Boundaries of Peru 291 

Boundaries of S. A. Republics 383 

Boves, Jose Tomas. 268 

Boyaca, Battle of 268 

Briceno, Alonzo 72 

Bridges 368, 371 

Brinton, Dr. D. G 17. 534 

Brown, Capt. William 233 

Buendia, Jose 412, 466 

Buendia, Gen'l Juan 380, 394 

Buenos Ayres 167, 190, 238 

Bull Fights 448 

Bulnes, Gonzalo 537 

Bustamente, Col 284 



Cabilds 156 

Cabrera, Don Luis Geronimo de...i76 

Cacao 500 

Caceres, Andres Avelino, 361, 394, 405, 

412, 415, 418, 419, 420, 423, 426, 428, 

429, 438, 439. 

Cacique 156 

Calahuayas 31 

Calancha, Antonio de la 171, 533 



INDEX 



545 



Page 

Calderon, Dr. Francisco Garcia, 41S, 

433, 435» 480- 

Calderon, Maria 131 

Callao 401, 463 

Callao Castle 188, 401 

Callejon de Huaylas 13 

Camba, Garcia 537 

Campero, Gen'l 404 

Canaris 88 

Candia, Pedro de, 72, 74, 78, 79, in, 114, 

116. 

Canete 144 

Cafiete, Marquis of (I.) 141, 147 

Canete, Marquis of (II.) 160 

Canete Valley 44 

Canevaro, Don Jose F 381, 412, 416 

Canseco, Pedro Diaz 355, 359, 365 

Canterac, Jose 248, 252, 272 

Canto, Col. del 419 

Capac Yupanqui 22 

Capsicum 37 

Caranquis, Conquest of 53 

Caravantes, Francisco de 164 

Carbajal, Francisco de, 95, 114, 122,126, 

130, 132. 

Carbajal, Ulan Suarez de 122 

Carbajal, Don Manuel 392 

Cardenas, Bernardino de 171 

Carpenter, Jose Maria 460 

Carranza, Luis 483 

Carrasco, Barnabe 381 

Carrasco, Constantino 468, 470 

Carrascon, Don Eduardo 244 

Carrillo, Camilo 362, 400, 418 

Carrion, Anton de 72 

Casa de la Contratacion 167 

Casalla, Pedro Lopez de 107 

Cascarilla 509 

Casma, Valley 45 

Casos, Don Fernando 537 

Cassava 162 

Castel dos Rios, Marquis of 467 

Castelfuerte, Marquis of 184 

Castellar, Count of 182 

Castelli, Dr 227 

Castilla, Don Ramon, 277, 327, 332, 337, 

338, 342, 346, 348, 355: 358, 364, 531- 

Castilla, the Younger 414 

Castro V Cueva, Don Beltran de 160 



Page 

Castro, Cristobal Vaca de, 105, in, 117, 
120, 122, 124. 

Castro, Lope Garcia de 148 

Cattle 162 

' Cavendish 160 

j Caxamarca 79, 83, 420, 463 

! Caxusoli 47 

Ccuri-cancha 26, 32 

Ccuri-coyllur 54, 57, 60, 81 

Cement 32 

Census 377 

Centeno Collection of Pottery 34 

Centeno, Diego 117, 121, 126, 130 

Cepeda, Diego 120, 132 

Ceramics 33 

Cerdena, Bias 261, 311, 314, 326, 328 

Cerro Pasco Mines 13, 438, 495 

Ceterni 46 

Chacaltana, Don Gaviano 225 

Chachapoyas 19 

Chalcuchima 56, 58, 83, 86 

Chancas 20, 42, 458 

Chancay Valley 45 

Changos 44 

Chao Valley 45 

Charcas 167, 190 

Charles II 183 

Charles V 75, 119, 141, 144, 166 

Chaves, Diego de 83 

Chaves, Francisco de 83, 107 

Chavez de la Rosa, Don Jedro Jose. 221 

Chavin 19 

Chicama Valley 45 

Chicha 27, 457, 500 

Chickens 162 

Chiclayo Valley 45 

Chilca Valley 44 

Chile, 92. 95, 144, 167, 191, 227, 238, 324, 
358, 374, 382, 387, 425, 435- 

Chilean Army 413 

Chimbote Valley 45 

Chimu, the Chief 21, 46, 47 

Chimu Valley 45 

Chimus, the Arts of, 48; Conquest by 

the Incas of 51 

Chincha loi 

Chincha Islands 437, 486 

Chincha Valley 44 

I Chinchas 43 



546 



INDEX 



Page 

Chinchay-suyu 20 

Chinchay-cocha Lake 13 

Chinchero 42 

Chinchilla 499 

Chinchon, Count of 176 

Chinchona Bark 177 

Chinchona Trees 502 

Chinese 375, 377, 443, 45i 

Chinhas 20 

Chira Valley 45 

Chirimoya 493 

Chocolate 162, 500 

Chorrillos, Battle of 414 

Chot 46 

Chulpas 41 

Chuqui-huanca 281 

Churches 446, 447 

Chuspa 457 

Cianca, Andres de 128,134 

Cisneros, Luis Benjamin 468, 470 

Citizenship 519 

Citrons 493 

Ciudad de Los Reyes 90 

Ciljil Wars, 294, 297, 302, 328, 332, 352, 
441. 535- 

Clavero, Don Jose G 480 

Climate 14, 15, 16, 444, 45i. 485 

Cloth 538 

Clubs 449> 482 

Coal 495. 496, 5" 

Coati Island 14 

Coast 15, 16 

Coast of Peru, Inhabitants of 44, 45 

Cobo, Historian 170 

Coca 37. 41, 456, 500, 509 

Cocaine 502, 509 | 

Cochineal 493 

Cochrane, Lord 241, 246,. 250 

Cock Fights 448 

Cocoa 509 

Coffee 500, 509 

Coinage 356, 451 

Collao, The 14 

Collas, The 20, 40, 63 

Colla-suyu 42 

Colleges 168, 170, 448, 461 

Colombia 167, 190, 268, 269 

Commerce 182, 184, 218, 342, 509 

" Commercio," The 3241 481 



Page 

Concacha 19 

Condorcanqui, Jose Gabriel 194 

Congress 257, 295, 298, 342, 348, 519 

Conococha Lake 13 

Conopa 23 

Constitution, .296, 300, 330, 348, 352, 515 

Copacabana, Peninsula 14 

Copper 494, 497 

Cordilleras 12 

Cordova, Don Diego Fernandez de.175 

Corn 456, 500 

Corpancho, Manuel Nicolas 468 

Corregidor 156 

Corregimientos 156 

Cortez, Hernando 76. 79, 95 

Costumes .456 

Cotopaxi 89 

Cotton 37, 165, 489, 509 

Council of the Indies 166 

Cricket 449 

Croix, Don Teodoro de 215 

Cuellar, Francisco de 72 

Cuenca 144 

Cuim 46 

Cura 158 

Cusi Coyllur 29 

Cusi Titu Yupanqui 145, 150 

Cuzco, 14, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 32,34, 
87, 93. 98, 117, 464. 

D 

Date Palms 164 

Davila 412 

Debt of Peru, 344, 354, 367, 374, 434, 
436, 438. 

De Candolle 17 

Denegri, Don Aurelio 431, 435 

Departments of Pera 292, 462, 528 

Deputy 520 

Derteano, Don Dionisio 408, 412 

Desaguadero River 14 

Deserts 48G 

Diego Tupac Amaru, 201, 209, 2x0, 212 

Dominicans 87, 169 

Don Carlos Inca 149 

Donoughmore, Earl of 438 

Drake, Francis-. 160 

Drama, The 29 

Duarte, Dr. Milon 412 



INDEX 



547 



Page 

Earthquake i88 

Echenique, Jose Rufino, 299, 341, 345. 
348, 362. 

" Eco del Protectorado " 324 

Ecuador 352, 433 

Education 446, 448, 460 

" El Ateneo de Lima " 482 

Electric Lighting 45° 

Elespuru, Col 249, 261, 327 

Elias, Don Domingo 341. 346 

Elias, Don Jesus 421 

El Muerto 73 

"El Peruano" 226 

" El Peru Ilustrado " 482 

Emigration 375 

Encalada, Blanco . . 326 

Ephemerides of Peru 179, 187 

Erauso, Catalina de 173 

Ercilla, Alonzo de 144 

Escobar, Maria de i6s 

Espartero, Baldomero 279 

Espinar, Col 395 

Espinosa, Caspar de 69, 100 

Esquilache, Prince of 173, 467 

Esquivel, Alonzo Priez de 107 

Estates, Country 450 

Eten, Valley 45 

Euriquez, Don Martin 159 

Executive Power 526 

Exhibition at Lima 371, 434 

Expenditures 514 

Explorations 217, 504 

Exports 354, 386, 509, 511 

F 

Feather Work of the Chimus 46, 50 

Ferdinand V 166 

Ferdinand VII 222 

Fernandez, Diego 535 

Fernandez, Trinidad 468, 470 

Festivals, Ancient 24 

Figueredo, Author 170 

Figuero, Don Diego Rodriguez de . . 14 
Figueroa, Christoval Suarez de, 162,536 

Figueroa, Germino de 152 

Filipillo 74, 80 

Fl eet 309, 326 

Florencia, Dr. Tomas Dreguez de. .301 

Flowers 451 

35 



Page 

Forests 15, 16, 17 

Francisca 123 

Franciscans 169 

Fuentes, Francisco de 83 

Fuentes, Don Manuel A, 371, 377, 479, 

536. 
Funes, Dean 536 



Gallo 70 

Galvez, Jose 360, 363, 432 

Galvez, Lieut 402 

Gamarra, Andres 403 

Gamarra, Augustin, 233, 249, 260, 277, 

286, 288, 293, 301, 310, 3ir, 327, 330. 

Garcia, Adolfo 468 

Garcia, Don Aurelio 376, 409 

Garezon, Pedro 392 

Gas 450 

Gasca, Pedro de la 127, 133 

Gavilan, Alonzo Ramos 533 

Geographical Society of Lima 482 

Giron, Francisco Hernandez, 125, 135, 

140. 

Goats 162 

Gold 497, 509, 512 

Gonzalez, Hernan 107 

Gonzalez, Vicente 229 

Gorgona 72 

Gorostiaga, Col 421 

Government 331, 348, 519 

Government of the Incas 35 

Governors 528 

Goyeneche, Jose Sebastian, 228, 301,447 

Grace Contract 435, 436 

Grace, Michael 435 

Granadillas 450, 493 

Grapes 164 

Grau, Miguel 360, 387, 391 

Guadalcazar, Marquis of 175 

Guamanga 105, 117 

Guanacos 37 

Guanape Islands 486 

Guano 34J, 436, 437, 486 

Guanta 455 

Guarda, Gen'l 341 

Guarmey, Valley 45 

Guevara, Dr. Diego Ladron de 184 

Guevara, Vasco de 117 



548 



INDEX 



Page 

Guirior, Don Manuel de 189 

Guise, Martin 241, 246, 251, 286 

Gutierrez Brothers, The 372 

Guzman, Alonzo Enriquez de 535 

Guzman, Diego Ortiz de 107 

Guzman, Don Luis Henrequez de..i79 



H 



Haenke, Tadeo 217 

Hakluyt Society 532, 533, 535 

Haro, Hernando de 83 

Hats, Straw 509 

Hawkins, Sir Richard 160 

Helguero, Don Genaro, 488 

Helps, Arthur 534 

Henriquez, Juan 107 

Heras, Dr. Bartolome de las 30b 

Heras, Col. Las 245 

Heredia, Cayetano 448 

Heres, Tomas 263, 282 

Herrada, Juan de 83 

Herrera, Antonio de 534 

Hides 509 

Holguin, Author 170 

Holguin, Alvarez 98, no, 112, 116 

Holguin, Garcia 89 

Holstein 537 

Horses 162, 449 

Houses 453. 456 

Huacas 23, 26 

Huahua 26 

Huallaga River 12, 13 

Huallmi, Valley 45 

Huaman, Valley 45 

Huambacho Valley . . 45 

Huanacauri 21, 26 

Huanapu, Valley 45 

Huanca-augui 56, 58 

Huancas 20, 42, 458 

Huancavelica Silver Mine 148, 464 

Huanuco 419, 464 

Huagui, Lake 14 

Huara, Valley 45 

Huaraca 26 

Huaraz 19 

Huarcu, Valley 44 

Huascar, 53, 81; Defeated by Atahu- 

alpa 59 

"Huascar," Ship 379, 382,389 



Page 

Huaylas 13 

Huayllina 25 

Huayna, Capac, Inca 53 

Huertas, Dr 460 

Huiiiaque 19 



Iglesias, Gen'l., 399, 412, 418, 420, 423, 

426. 

Iglesias, Tomas 361 

Illampu, Mountain 15 

Illa-Ticci-Uira-Cocha 20, 22 

Illimani, Mountain 15 

Imports 354 

Inca, The 25, 26, 40 

Inca Civilization, Seat of the 12 

IncaPaullu, 59, 92, 98, 103, in, 115, 131, 

145- 

Inca Rocca 22 

Incas 20, 41, 44, 213, 458 

Incas, Arms of the. 40 

Inclan, Col 361 

Independence of Peru 250, 237 

Indians of to-day 431, 443, 454 

India Rubber 502 

Inquisition 171, 186 

Intendencias 216 

Inti Cusi Hualpa Inca 53 

Inti-huatana 24 

Inns 453 

Ipecacuanha 162 

Irrigation 44, 490, 493 

Irrigation by the Chimus 51 

"Italia" 493 

J 

Jaren, Garcia de 72 

Jauregui, Don Augustin de, 190, 202, 215 

Jayanca 47 

Jayanca, Valley 45 

Jequetepeque, Valley 45 

Jesuits 169, 189, 466 

Jesuit College of San Martin 159 

Jewelry of the Chimus 50 

Jockey Club 449 

Journalism 481 

Judiciary 529 

Junin 464 



INDEX 



549 



Page 

Junin, Battle of 273 

Justiniano, Pabl© 454 

K 

Kerosene 478 

Koenig, Mathematician 179 

L 

La Cotera, Gen'l 361, 399 

Ladies 445 

La Fuente, Gen'l, 260, 288, 293, 301, 327, 

332, 336, 362. 

Lagomarsino, Jose Sanchos 400 

Lagos, Pedro 432 

Laime, Pedro 177 

Lama, Don Diego de 487 

Lamar, Jose de 253, 258; 285 

Lambayeque, Valley 45 

Landa, Don Tiburcio 199 

Language 19, 28, 444 

"La Opinion Nacional" 482 

La Palata, Duke of 184 

La Palma, Battle of 348 

"La Patria" 482 

La Perouse 219 

La Puerta, Gen'l 362, 399 

La Ramada 79 

Lara, Rodrigo Manrique de 147 

Larrabure, Dr. Eugenio 478, 482 

Larraiiaga, Don Luis 482 

Las Casas, Bishop 119 

La Serna, Viceroy 262, 278 

Lauricocha Lake 13 

Lavalle, Don Jose Antonio, 384, 423, 

468, 470. 

Lawn Tennis 449 

Laws 524 

Lead 509 

Lecco, Manuel 415 

Leche, Valley 45 

Legislative power 519 

Leguizamo, Mancia Siena de 146 

Lemons 450, 493 

Lemos, Count of t8i 

Leon, Pedro de Cieza de 19, 532, 535 

Leubel, Seiior 461 

L'Heremite, Jacob 175 

Libertad 462 



Page 

Library. National of Peru, 417, 432, 471 

"Libro de Tasas" 156 

Lightning 23, 24 

Lima, 90, 399, 411, 416, 423, 444, 450, 463, 
465- 

Lima Cathedral , 218 

Lima Emigration Co 376 

Limatamba 43 

Limenos 445 

Lilian y Cisneros, Dr. Melchor de..i82 

Literature 466 

Llama 17, 37, 456 

Llampalles, Idol 46 

Llapchilulli 46 

Lloqui Yupanqui 21 

Loaysa, Geronimo de 120, 168 

Lobos Islands 486 

Locumba Valley 452 

Lomas 16, 451 

London and Pacific Petroleum Co. .488 

Lopera .310 

Lorente, Don Sebastian 473, 534 

Loreto 463 

Los Heros 416 

Loyola, Don Martin Garcia de, 146, 152 

Lozano, Mathematician 179 

Lucanas 20 

Luce, Domingo de Soria 72 

Lucerne 163 

Lucina 493 

Luna, Gormez de 107 

Lunarejo, Dr 446 

Lupacas 20, 41 

Luque 68, 75, 76 

Lynch, Patrick 407, 417, 423 

M 

Macabi Islands 486 

Machuca, Vargas 416 

Mackenna, Don Benjamin Vicuna, 326, 

385, 537. 

Maclean, Dr 415 

Maize 17, 37, 162, 500 

Mala, Valley 44 

Malaspina, Captain Alejandro 217 

Maldonado, Pedro 134 

Mallero, Juan Bautista 107 

Malquis 26 

Mama Ocllo Huaco 21 



550 



INDEX 



Page 

Mama Rahua Ocllo 53 

Mancera, Marquis of 178 

Manco, Inca 5.3, 86, 93, 145 

Manco Capac 21 

Mandana, Alvaro de 148, 161 

Manjarres, Alonzo de 107 

Manso, Don Jose Antonio 187 

Mantaro River 12, 14 

Manufactures 538 

Map of Peru 377 

Maquinhuayo, Embrace of 299 

Mar, Don Jose Manuel del 352 

Maranon River 12,13 

Mariategui, Francisco Xavier..244, 481 

Maria Tupac Usca 145 

Marquesas, Islands 161 

Marquez, Arnaldo 416, 468 

Martinet, Captain Juan Nicolas de. 184 

Martinez, Carlos Walker 385 

Martinillo 74 

Mai capaycha 157 

Masias, Felipe 480 

Matienzo, Juan de 149, 533 

Mayta Capac 22 

Mayta Yupanqui 57 

Measures 513 

Medina, Dr 460 

Medina, Sculptor 457 

Melchior, Carlos .-149 

Melgar, Mariano 230, 232, 467 

Menacho, Juan Perez 466 

Mendiburu, Gen'l 474, 536 

Mendoza, Don Andres Hurtado de. 141 

Mendoza, Don Antonio de 134 

Mendoza, Don Garcia Hurtado de, 144, 

160. 

Mendoza, Don Juan de 172 

Mendoza, Pedros de '. 83 

Mendoza, Don Toribio Rodriguez de, 

221. 

Mendnrao, Espinosa 466 

Menendez, Manuel. . . .235, 332, 335, 342 

Menendez, Tomas 235 

Mercedarios 169 

"Mercurio Peruano " 216, 466 

Mesa, Don Pio Beniquo 480 

Messengers of the Incas 41 

Mestizos 443 

Metallurgy 33 



Page 

Miller, W 241, 252, 261, 299, 317, 329 

Mines 513 

Ministers 527 

Miraflores 413, 416 

Miranda, Gen'l 267 

Mitimaes 37, 42, 45 

Mitre, Gen'l 534 

Mitta 157, 193, 250 

Moche, Valley 45 

Mochica, Language 45 

Mogrovejo, Toribio 168 

Molina, Alonzo de 72 

Molina, Christoval de 153, 533 

Mollendo 498 

Molle Tree 15 

Monclora, Count of 183 

Money 514 

Monks 447 

Montalvo 169 

Montana 16, 503 

Monteagudo, Den Bernardo 250, 255 

Monterey, Count of 172 

Montero 45? 

Montero, Lizardo, 350, 362, 380, 398,404, 
412, 418, 423, 428. 

Montes Claros, Marquis of 172 

Montesinos, Fernando 533 

Montt, Senor 357 

Moon 23, 24 

Moore, Captain 406 

Moquegua 463 

Mora, Jose Joaquin de 324 

Morals 455 

Moran, Gen'l 347 

Moreno, Dr. Gabriel . 216 

Morillo, Gen'l 268 

Moro, Diego de 83 

Morochucos 458 

Morrope, Valley 45 

Morro Solar 412 

Moscoso, Francisco 83 

Mosoc-nina 28 

Mountains of Peru 12 

"Muelle y Darsena" 369 

Mujica, Don Martin Antonio. 481 

Mulberries 493 

Municipalities 529 

Mufioz, Inez 163 

Music 457 



INDEX 



55^ 



Page j 

Museo Erudito 31 

Myths 19- 21 

Is 

•"Nacional" 481 

Nasca, Valley 44 

Native Races, Antiquity of 17 

Naval School 379 

Navarro, Antonio 77 

Navy, 240, 251, 261, 283, 343, 350, 357, 360, 
378. 3S8, 400, 417, 432. 

Naymlap 46 

Negros 165, 375. 443 

Nepeiia, Valley 45 

"New Laws'" 119, 12S 

New Toledo 92 

Nieto, Domingo 297, 309 

Nieva, Count of 147 

Nitrate. 343, 3S6, 425, 436 

Nodal, Jose Fernandez 480 

Novoa, Jovino 423 

Nueva Castilla 92 

Nunneries 44S 

Nunez, Mendez 359, 362 

Nusta, Beatiz 146 

o 

Oats 163 

Oca 37.499 

Odriozola, Col 467, 471 

O'Higgins, Don Ambrosio 218 

O'Higgins, Bernado 220, 239, 274 

Olaneta, Gen'l 261 

Olavide, Don Pablo de 466 

Olives 163, 493 

Ollanta 29, 4S0 

Ollantay-tambo, Remains at 95 

Olmedo 467 

Ondagardo, Polo de 137, 149, 532 

Oranges 164, 450, 493 

Orbegoso, Don Luis Jose, 297, 310, 314, 
327- 

Orbegoso, Don Nemecio 399 

Orellana, Francisco de 104 

Orgonez, Rodrigo 92, 98, 102 

Oropesa, Marquisate of 196 

Ortiz Diego 151 

Ornc, Pedro Ortiz de 145 

Orueta, Francisco 447 



Page 
Osorno, Marquis of 218 

P 

Pacasas 20, 41 

Pacasmayu 419 

Pacasmayu, Valley 45 

Paccarina 23 

Paccay 493 

Pacheco, Toribio 480 

Pachacamac 90 

Pachacamac, Temple 44 

Pachacutec 43 

Pacheco 360 

Padilla, Don Juan de 179, 193, 536 

Painting 457 

Palacios, Enrique 392 

Palacios, Don Manuel 31 

Palma, Don Ricardo. .433, 468, 471,482 

Palpa, Valley 44 

Palta 493 

Panama 67 

Panchita, Dona 293, 294 

Paniagua, Pedro Hernandez 128 

Panizo, Dona Rosa de 258 

Pantoja, Rodrigo 107 

Pardo, Don Felipe 467 

Pardo, Don Jose Maria 282 

Pardo, Manuel 360, 372, 448 

Pardo, Count of Villar, Don 159 

Paredes, Don Jose Gregorio 225 

Pareja, Admiral 358 

Parmunca, Fortress of 51 

Partidos 216 

Pasado, Cape 69 

Pativilca, Valley 45 

Paucartambo River 12 

Pavon, Jose 190 

Paz, Martin de 72 

Paz Soldan, Senor 337 

Pedrarias 67 

"Pelucones" 324 

Penelo, Leon 171 

People 443 

Peralta, Cristoval de 72, 91 

Peralta y Barnuevo, Dr. Don Pedro, 
186, 466. 

Perez, Juan 107 

"Peruano," El 226 

Peru-Bolivian Confederation 323 



552 



INDEX 



Page 

"Peru Ilustrado," El 482 

Peruvian Bark 177, 386 

Peruvian Corporation 437 

Peruvians 291, 518 

Peso 356 

Petroleum 486 

Pezet, Juan Antonio 305, 353, 355 

Pezet, Dr. Jose 225, 272 

Pezuela, Don Joaquin de la, 228, 236, 

237. 248. 

Philip II 127. 144, 147, 159, 162, 171 

Philip III 175 

Philip V 183 

Physicians, Itinerant 31 

Piaggio, Signor 487 

Pianofortes 454 

Picado, Antonio 90, no 

Pierola, Nicolas de 380, 399, 412 

Pigeons 162 

Pigs 162 

PincuUus 457 

Pinelo, Leon 169, 466 

Pino, Dr 416 

Pinzon, Admiral 356 

"Pisco" 493 

Pisco, Valley 44 

Piura 78, 462 

Piura, Valley 45 

Pizarro, Francisco, 55, 67, 71, 74, 78, 81, 

86, 90, 97, loi, 104, 106, 108. 
Pizarro, Dr. Francisco Xavier Luna, 

221, 257, 284, 447. 
Pizarro, Gonzalo, 75, 92, 117, 121, 123, 

■ 133- 
Pizarro, Hernando, 75, 81, 92, 94, 97, 

103, 105, 535- 

Pizarro, J uan 75, 89, 92, 94 

Pizarro, Pedro 535 

Placencia, Col 537 

Plaza, Jose Maria 279 

Pocras 20, 42, 458 

Polo, Don Jose Toribio 479 

Pongmassa 47 

Population of Peru. ...218, 377, 443, 465 

Porras, Martin de 169 

Portales, Diego 325 

Ports 369 

Potato 17, 36, 162, 456, 499 

Pottery 33. 48, 49 

Prado, Leoncio 422 



Page 

Prado, Lorencio 400 

Prado, Mariano Ignacio, 359, 363, 381, 
398, 428. 

Prescott, W. H 534 

President 526 

Priests 23, 460 

Printing 170, 466 

Provinces 528 

Pucara, Battle of 420 

Puelles, Pedro de 89, 112 

Puerta, Don Luis de la.. 381 

Puerto Viejo j-j 

Puga, Dr 423 

Pumacagua, Mateo Garcia, 201, 228, 232 

Puna 12, 77 

Puno 464 

Puquina 42 

Puris 26 

Puyrredon, Dr 460 

Q 

Quays 437 

Quecap 19 

Quefmar Tree 15 

Question Talambo 357 

Quevedo 467 

Quichuas, The 20, 62 

-Quichua Language 28, 44, 444 

Quicksilver 496 

Quilaco Yupanqui 54i 57. 59 

Quimper 360 

Quinine 162, 176, 502 

Quintana, Manuel Joeef 535 

Quinua 37, 456, 499 

Quipucamayoc 28 

Quiros, Francisco de Paula 234 

Quispi 151 

Quito 20, 53, 88, 167, T91 

Quizquiz, 56, 58, 83, 87 

R 

Rada, Juan de la 89, 92, 106, no 

Railroads 367, 436, 438, 491 

Raimondi, Dr. Antonio 378, 483 

Rainbow 23 

Ramirez, Juan 228 

Raymi 25 

Recabarren, Col 421 

Regidores 156 



INDEX 



553 



Page 

Reiss , 534 

Relayze, Col 427 

Religion 456, 515 

Religion, Ancient 20, 23 

Reuss, Researches of 48 

Revenue 386, 434, 514 

"JRevista de Lima" 373 

"Revista Peruano" 478, 782 

Reyes, Don Diego de los 185 

Ribeiro 415 

Ribera, Dona Francisca Henriquez de, 
176. 

Ribera, Nicolas de 90 

Ricardo, Antonio 172 

Rice 492, 509 

Riestra, Valle 308 

Riquelme, Alonzo de 77. 85, gi 

Rimac, Temple 44 

Rimac, Valley 44 

Rio, Don Juan Garcia del, 250 

Rios, Marquis de Castel dos 184 

Rios, Juan 298 

Rios, Pedros de los 70 

Risco, Dr 460 

Rivera, Luis de 107 

Rivero, Don Mariano 480, 534 

Rivers of Peru 12,14 

Roads 40, 52, 452 

Robertson 534 

Robles, Martin de 143 

Rodriguez, Lieut 392 

Rojas, Gabriel de 95, 122 

Rosas, Dr 435 

Royal Audience 119, 136, 142, 167 

Rubber 502 

Rubio, Torres 170 

Rucanas 43 

Ruins, Ancient 18, 47 

Ruiz, Bartholome 69, 72 

Ruiz, Hipolito igo 

Rumi-iiaui 56, 80, 84, 88 

s 

Saavedra, Juan de 92, 137 

Sacred Heart College 448 

Sacrifices, Human 26 

Sacsahuaman, Fort 19 

Sacsahuana, Plain 43 

Saints 169 



Page 

Sajoma, Volcano 15 

Salaverry, Carlos Agosto. . .320, 468, 470 
Salaverry, Felipe Santiago de, 247, 298, 

301, 304, 312, 318, 319. 
Salcamayhua, Pachacuti Yamqui. . .53}. 

Salcedo, Garcia de 107 

Salcedo, Caspar de iSr 

Salcedo, Manuel 350, 356 

Saldomando, Don Enrique Torres. .479 

Salinas, Marquis of 161, 172 

Salt, Titus 498 

Salvatierra, Count of 179 

Sana, Valley 45 

San Antonio Abad, University of. . .170 

San Borja, College of 171 

San Carlos, College of i8g, 448 

Sanchez, Deputy 415 

San Domingo Church 447 

San Felipe College 170, i8g 

San Francisco Church 446, 447 

San Francisco Solano 169 

San Gallan go 

Sangarara, Battle of 199 

San Geronimo, College of 171 

San Juan de Dios Church 446 

San Marcos, University of 170, 433 

San Martin, Jose de 238, 254. 

San Martin, College of 170, 189 

San Miguel 78 

San Pedro Church 447 

San Roman, Miguel, 232, 288, 298, 327, 

332, 334. 336. 346, 351. 355- 

Santa 144. 

Santa Cruz, Andres, 248, 260, 280, 284, 

286, 294, 310, 312, 319, 322, 328, 333. 

Santa Maria 382 

Santa River 13 

Santa Rosa 169 

Santa, Valley 45 

Santalices, Don Ventura ig3 

Santa Maria, Don Domingo 359 

Santillan, Fernando de 533 

Santillan, Hernando de 134 

Santistevan, Count of 179, 467 

Santistevan, Jose Silva 480 

Santo Bono, Prince of 184. 

San Toribio, College of 168, 448 

Saravia, Dr, Melchor Bravo de, 70, 134, 

145. 



554 



INDEX 



Page 

Sardinia, Dr 460 

Sarmiento, Don Pedro 160 

Sayri Tupac 145 

"Saya y Manto " 223, 446 

Schools 461 

Scyris 20 

Seasons 24 

Secada, Col 421 

Sechura, Valley 45 

Segura, Hernan Nunez de 107 

Segura, Don Manuel 467 

Senator 520 

Serna, Don Jose de la 248 

Serranos 452 

Sheep 162, 497 

Sierra 12 

Sillustani Towers 41 

Silva, Gen'l 412, 416, 422 

Silva, Mateo 225 

Silver 173, 175, 181, 306,494, 509, 511 

Simpson, Robert 251 

Sinchi Rocca 21 

Slaves 347, 375, 451 

Socabaya, Battle of 314 

Socialism 35 

Society 445 

Sol 356, 514 

Solano, Juan 120 

Solar, Don Pedro Alejandrino del, 431, 
439- 

Soldan, Don Carlos Paz 482 

Soldan, Mariano Felipe Paz 476 

Soldan, Pedro Paz 468, 469 

Solomon Islands 148 

Solorzano, Juan de 536 

Soras 20, 43 

Sorochi 239 

Soto, Hernando de 60, 81, 83, 92 

Soto, Juan de 154 

Spain 65, 356, 433 

Spaniards 59, 290, 443, 453 

Squier, E. G 33. 534 

Stars 23 

Statistics 377 

Steamboats 370 

Steubel, Researches of 48 

Street Railways 450 

Stubel 534 

Suarez, Belisario 394, 412, 418 



Page 

Suarez, Pedro 115 

Sucre, Antonio Jose de, 263, 269, 277, 
280, 282, 287. 

Sugar 164, 386, 492, 509.539 

Sun 23, 24 

Supe, Valley 45 

Superunda, Count of 187 

Suj>erstitions 28 

Surgical Science of the Incas 32 



Taboada y Lemos, Don Francisco Gil 
de, 216. 

Tacna 394, 403 

Tafur 71 

Tagle, Marquis of Torre . . .253, 263,271 

Talambo, Question 357 

Talara 452 

Tallamolle 452 

Tangarara, Vailey 45 

Tarapaca ,338, 386, 394, 396, 410, 463 

Tejeda 360 

Tejada 120 

Telephones 450 

Telleria, Manuel 222, 296 

Tello, Juan 90 

Tempellec 46 

Temple of the Sun 26, 32 

Teruel, Writer 170 

Texeira, Pedro de 178 

Textile Fabrics 33. 47. 49. 538 

Tiahuanaco. Ruins 18 

Tiquina, Strait 14 

Tirado, Don Manuel 345 

Tisoc, Clemente 454 

Titicaca, Island 14 

Titicaca, Lake 14, 20, 22, 37 

Titu Atauchi 78, 84 

Titu Yupanqui 95 

Tobacco 162, 491, 500 

Toledo, Don Francisco de, 148, 158, 536 

Torata 403 

Torata, Battle of 259 

Tordoya, Gomez de 98, 112, 116 

Torre, Gonzalez Hernandez de la.. 107 

Torre, Juan de la 72 

Torrico, Gen'l 327, 345, 346 

Tovar, Dr. Manuel 426, 460 

Traveling 452 



INDEX 



bS:) 



Page 

Treaty between Peru and Chile 424 

Tribes 20 

Tristan, Domingo 253 

Tristan, Don Pio 280 

Truxillo 91.419 

Truxillo, Valley 45 

Tumbez 73,77 

Tumbez Valley 45 

Tupac Amaru (I) 145, 150, 152 

Tupac Amaru (II), 196, 200, 203, 206, 

208, 536. 
Tupac Yupanqui 43i 5i. 52, 7° 

U 

Ubalde, Manuel 223 

Ucayali River 12, 14 

Ugariza 415 

Ugarte, Alfonso 406 

Ugarteche, Col 361 

Uira-cocha 22 

Uira-cocha, Inca 41 

Umachiri, Battle of 232 

Unanue, Hipolito. 216, 224, 250, 282, 
412, 467- 

Uncu 157 

United States, 407, 409, 418, 419, 433, 472 

Universities 170, 433, 460 

Urco, Inca 43 

Urriola, Col 459 

Ursua, Pedro de 144 

Uru 42 

Urus 20, 177 

Usutas 457 

Utrecht, Treaty of 183 

V 

Valcarce, Col 227 

Valdez, Dr. Antonio 197, 211 

Valdez, General 248 

Valdivia, Don Juan 480 

Valdivia, Pedro de 102, 104, 131 

Valeria, Bias 170, 534 

Valle, Don Jose del 202, 209, 2x1 

Valle, Don Juan del 467 

Valle-Riestra, Felipe 414 

Valleys of Peru 44, 45 

Valverde, Vicente de. .80, 83, 86, 92, 120 
Vargas, Diego de 107 



Page 

Vasquez, Dr. Diego de Torres 176 

Vasquez, Tomas 136, 140, 143 

Vega, Garcilasso de la, 89, 98, 115, 117, 

122, 131, 155, 162,533. 

Vega, Juan de 176 

Vegetables 493, 499 

Vela, Blasco Nunez 120 

Velasco, Juan de 534 

Velasco, Don Luis de i5i 

Velasques, Dr. Juan 107 

Venezuela 266, 425 

Viana, Sanchez de 171 

Viceroys 119, 167, 536 

Vicunas 37 

Vidal, Gen'l Francisco, 242, 245, 307, 

313, 336: 
Vigil, Francisco de Paula Gonzalez, 

221, 295. 475. 481. 

Vilcabamba 151 

Vilcacunca 85 

Vilcamayu River 12, 14, 22, 25 

Vilcamayu, Valley 42 

Vilcanota 14, 22 

Vilcas-huaman 42 

Villa, Garcia, Marquis of 186 

Villac Umu 23, 92 

Villaran, Manuel 288 

Villar, Leonardo 481 

Villar, Don Manuel 360 

Villaran, Author 480 

Villavicencio, Capt 401, 432 

Villcas 23 

Vine, The 493 

Virgins of the Sun 24 

Viru, Valley 45 

Vista Florida, Count of, 226, 257, 288, 

301, 308. 
Vivanco, Gen'l Manuel Ignacio, 332, 

341, 349, 352, 358- 

Vivanco, Reinaldo 413 

Vivero, Juan de 151 

W 

Water supply of Lima 450 

Weapons of the Chimus 50 

Weights 513 

Weiner, C 534 

Wheat 163, 500 



cUh 






ss(> 



INDEX 

Page 



Wine 164, 509 

Wool 386, 456, 497, 509 

Worster, Captain 241 



Xauxa 

Xauxa, Valley 

Xeres, Francisco de. 



...85 
13- 14 
■ • • 534 



Yacolla 157 

Yahuar-Huaccac 22 

Yanacocha, Battle of 310 

Yanaconas 158 

Yauyos 43 

Yaravis 452 

Yea, Dept 463 



-Page 



Yea, Town 419 

Yea, Valley 44 

Yngavi, Battle of 334 

Yquichanos 458 

Yquitos 370 

Yucay, Palace 42 



Zalvidar 423 

Zarate, Augustin de 120, 532 

Zarate, Juan Ortiz de ■]■], 107 

Zegarra, Don Gavino Pacheco, 480, 483 

Zela, Juan Pardo de 235, 260, 261 

"Zepita " Battalion 430 

Zubiaga, Juan Bautista 394 

Zuniga, Diego de Acevedo y 147 



JAN -0 W'l 



lU 






